MONTHLY  BULLETIN 


Pear  Growing  in  California 


STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE 


SACRAMENTO,  CALIFORNIA. 


MAY,  1918. 


THE    MONTHLY    BULLETIN 

CALIFORNIA  STATE  COMMISSION  OF  HORTICULTURE 

VOL.  VII.  MAY,  1918.  No.  5. 


Pear  Growing  in  California 


A  Practical  Treatise  Designed  to  Cover 

Some  of  the  Important  Phases  of 

Pear  Culture  Within  the  State 


BY 

GEO.  P.  WELDGN  : 

Chief  Deputy  State  Commissioner  of  Horticulture 


Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  29,  1911,  at  the  post  office  at  Sacramento, 
California,  under  the  act  of  June  6.  1900. 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  PRINTING  OFFICE 
37406 


SB  3  73 


CONTENTS. 


NOTE. — F'igures  indicating  page  numbers  refer  to  folios  at  foot  of  pages. 


Page. 
3 


FOREWORD     

PREFACE 4 

INTRODUCTION 5 

VARIETIES 14 

TREES,    STOCKS   AND   PROPAGATION 66 

SELECTION  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  F'OR  PLANTING 74 

DISTANCE  AND  SYSTEMS  FOR  PLANTING  AND  NUMBER 

OF  TREES  PER  ACRE 79 

SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION  FOR  PLANTING 82 

SETTING  AND  CARING  FOR  THE  YOUNG  TREES 87 

PRUNING 90 

IRRIGATION,      CULTIVATION,      COVER     CROPS,     FERTIL- 
IZERS,  INTERCROPS 103 

CHAPTER...  X.     GRAFTING  THE  PEAR 111 

CHAPTER    'Jxj,     FROST  INJURY:,-  AND  FROST  PROTECTION 114 

CHAPTER  r  XIS.  .  SPRAYING  THE   PEAR 118 

CHAPSETI hc£ri.r'-  ^CT^RIA;L  'AND  FUNGOUS  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEAR 125 

CHAPTER    XIV.  INSECT,  MITE  AND  ANIMAL  PESTS  OF  THE  PEAR__          -153 

CHAPTER      XV.  THINNING,  PICKING  AND  PACKING— -   172 

CHAPTER    XVI.  CANNING  AND  DRYING  PEARS -   176 

CHAPTER  XVII.  INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 182 


CHAPTER 

I. 

CHAPTER 

II. 

CHAPTER 

III. 

CHAPTER 

IV. 

CHAPTER 

V. 

CHAPTER 

VI. 

CHAPTER 

VII. 

CHAPTER 

VIII. 

CHAPTER 

IX. 

•:.     - 


FOREWORD. 

The  appearance  of  pear  blight  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
valleys  some  twenty  years  ago  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  a  large 
acreage  of  the  best  pear  orchards  of  California.  Resolute  action  in  the 
adoption  of  proper  control  measures  brought  about  a  rapid  recovery  of 
confidence  in  the  future  of  this  industry,  and  since  that  time  most 
encouraging  progress  has  been  made  in  the  practical  application  of 
remedies  in  the  control  of  pests  and  diseases,  in  the  study  of  resistant 
rootstocks,  in  better  handling  of  the  crops,  and  in  bettering  market 
conditions.  Today  California  stands  indisputably  at  the  head  of  the 
world's  pear  growing  districts,  both  in  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
fruit  produced. 

The  need  of  a  good  reliable  handbook  on  the  pear  industry  of  the 
state  has  been  very  evident  for  some  time,  and  Mr.  George  P.  Weldon, 
Deputy  Commissioner  of  the  State  Commission  of  Horticulture,  has 
been  charged  with  the  investigation  of  conditions,  and  after  much 
patient  and  careful  research  work  has  completed  such  a  manual.  The 
extensive  experience  Mr.  Weldon  has  had  in  this  and  other  states  has 
especially  fitted  him  for  this  work,  and  I  am  sure  that  this  publication 
will  be  welcomed  and  appreciated.  It  is  hoped  that  it  may  be  of  service 
to  those  actually  interested  in  the  upbuilding  of  this  industry,  which 
is  certain  to  remain  one  of  the  largest  fruit  specialties  in  California. 

G.  H.  HECKE, 
State  Commissioner  of  Horticulture. 

Sacramento,  California,  May  1,  1918. 


44G375 


222  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


PREFACE. 

During  the  time  spent  in  the  investigation  of  the  pear  industry, 
covering  a  period  of  four  years,  in  practically  every  county  of  the 
state  where  this  fruit  is  grown  commercially,  the  writer  was  extended 
many  courtesies  and  received  much  valuable  assistance  from  the  county 
horticultural  commissioners,  and  therefore  wishes  to  express  to  them 
his  appreciation  and  thanks. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript  the  valuable  aid  of  a  number  of 
people  familiar  with  the  pear  industry  was  secured.  To  them  points 
that  were  uncertain  were  submitted  for  an  opinion,  which  was  always 
generously  and  freely  given.  The  publication  of  this  book  is  thus 
undertaken  with  an  added  assurance  that  the  material  contained  in  its 
pages  is  reliable.  The  thanks  of  the  author  is  tendered  to  Mr.  A.  L. 
Wisker,  Grass  Valley,  California,  for  revising  manuscript,  aiding  with 
the  description  of  varieties,  and  for  furnishing  a  table  giving  dates  of 
blooming  for  different  varieties ;  to  Dr.  W.  L.  Howard,  Professor  W.  P. 
Tufts  and  Professor  A.  H.  Hendrickson,  of  the  University  of  California, 
for  aid  in  the  description  of  varieties  and  data  on  cross  pollination ;  to 
Professor  C.  I.  Lewis,  Corvallis,  Oregon,  Mr.  W.  V.  Eberly,  Niles,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Mr.  George  C.  Roeding,  Fresno,  California,  for  data  on 
varieties ;  to  Professor  F.  C.  Reimer,  Talent,  Oregon,  and  Mr.  A.  C.  Mc- 
Cormick,  Talent,  Oregon,  for  revising  the  article  on  pear  blight  and  for 
data  regarding  varieties;  to  Mr.  F.  C.  Brosius,  County  Horticultural 
Commissioner,  Sacramento,  California,  for  data  on  intercrops  and  pro- 
duction; to  H.  S.  Smith,  Superintendent  of  the  State  Insectary.  D.  C. 
Fessenden,  Secretary  of  the  State  Commission  of  Horticulture,  O.  W. 
Newman,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  State  Commission  of  Horticulture, 
and  Miss  Edith  Moore,  stenographer  in  the  State  Commission  of  Horti- 
culture, for  much  painstaking  work  in  correcting  proof. 

The  work  was  done  under  the  immediate  direction  of  State  Horticul- 
tural Commissioner  G.  H.  Hecke,  whose  valuable  suggestions  have  at  all 
times  been  available  and  have  meant  much  toward  the  satisfactory  com- 
pletion of  the  book. 

GEO.  P.  WELDON. 


BARTLETT 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNI?*.  223 

CHAPTER   I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Pear  growing  in  California  dates  back  over  a  period  of  approximately 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  although  commercially  the  industry 
amounted  to  little  until  more  than  a  century  later.  The  first  trees  were 
planted  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers  on  the  grounds  of  their  various 
missions,  including  Mission  San  Jose  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley. 
Strange  to  say,  this  valley  which  witnessed  the  beginning  of  the  pear 
industry  in  the  state  has,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  absolutely  free 
from  blight,  the  scourge  of  the  pear  orchard,  which  has  spread  through- 
out practically  all  other  pear-growing  sections  in  the  United  States  and 
which  has  made  the  growing  of  this  fruit  unprofitable,  if  not  impossible, 
without  the  application  of  extreme  measures  in  its  control.  Fig.  1  shows 


FIG.   1.     Pear  trees  growing  near  Santa  Barbara,  where  they  are  said  to  have 
been  planted  by  the  Padres  about  125  years  ago. 

some  very  large  seedling  pear  trees  at  Gaviota,  Santa  Barbara  County, 
California,  which  are  said  to  be  at  least  125  years  old.  The  largest  tree 
is  about  three  feet  in  diameter  and  at  least  45  feet  high.  They  are  very 
thrifty  and  except  at  close  range  look  like  oaks.  Apparently  blight  has 
never  affected  them  in  the  least.  At  San  Rafael  there  are  some  old 
seedling  trees  which  are  said  to  have  been  planted  in  1817.  These  are 
also  hardy  and  free  from  blight. 

Since  the  days  when  the  Padres  demonstrated  the  adaptability  of 
the  pear  and  other  fruits  to  California  conditions,  on  the  lands  sur- 
rounding the  missions,  many  of  which  are  still  standing  amidst 
remnants  of  these  old  tree  plantings,  the  pear  industry  has  assumed 
such  proportions  that  it  is  now  one  of  the  leading  deciduous  fruit 


224  PEAK    GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

£•  !J*r« 

industries  of  California.  During  the  year  1916,  according  to  the  best 
available  figures,  there  were  17,764  acres  of  pear  trees  in  bearing  and 
23,325  acres  that  had  not  yet  come  into  bearing  in  the  state.  In  1917 
the  bearing  area  was  increased  to  20,473  acres  and  the  nonbearing  to 
28,069  acres.  During  1917  there  were  shipped  from  the  state  4,798 
carloads  of  pears.*  In  addition  there  were  dried  in  Lake  County  alone 
the  equivalent  of  3,981  tons  green  fruit.  The  total  production  of  ship- 
ping, drying  and  canning  pears  was  approximately  90,000  tons. 

At  the  present  time  the  leading  pear-growing  county  of  the  state  is 
Sacramento,  where  the  production  in  1917  was  26,669  tons.  The  Santa 
Clara  Valley,  the  "cradle"  of  the  commercial  industry,  is  still  an 
important  section  for  the  growing  of  this  fruit.  It  is  in  this  valley  that 
many  other  varieties  besides  the  Bartlett  have  been  successfully  pro- 
duced. The  latter  is,  however,  by  far  the  most  important  variety  grown 
in  the  state  and  California  is  noted  because  of  the  splendid  quality  and 
quantity  of  Bartletts,  which,  either  fresh,  canned  or  dried,  are  known 
in  all  the  principal  markets  of  the  world. 

The  table  to  be  found  on  a  succeeding  page  of  this  chapter,  which 
shows  the  acreage  of  pears  in  each  of  the  counties  where  the  industry 
is  at  all  important,  illustrates  the  fact  that  there  are  possibilities  in  the 


FIG.   2.     Typical  scene  in  the  pear  orchard  section  of  El  Dorado  County. 

growing  of  this  fruit  that  have  never  yet  been  realized.  In  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Sierras,  where  the  first  plantings  were  made  by  the  pioneers 
of  the  gold  mining  days;  in  the  coast  valleys  and  in  the  hills  of  the 
coast  range  of  mountains  from  Eureka  to  Santa  Barbara ;  in  the  fertile 
valleys  of  the  Feather,  Sacramento,  San  Joaquin  and  other  inland 
rivers;  and  in  the  desert  sections  of  the  south,  including  the  Imperial 
Valley,  where  they  are  growing  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  planting  has 
been  going  on  and  pears  are  being  produced  successfully,  upon  a  com- 
mercial basis.  Available  land  for  profitable  pear  culture  may  be  found 
in  practically  every  county  of  the  state,  and  when  we  consider  the  pos- 

*  Figures  from  California  Fruit  News  of  December  29,  1917. 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  225 

slbility  of  development  we  are  forced  to  ask  ourselves  the  question — 
"Can  the  business  be  overdone?"  This  question  can  not  be  directly 
answered  and  involves  so  many  things  that  we  can  do  little  more  than 
speculate.  Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  California's  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions are  such  that  in  spite  of  difficulties  which  have  driven  other 
sections  out  of  the  business  our  growers  have  succeeded.  Most  import- 
ant of  these  difficulties  with  which  other  states  have  not  been  able  to 
cope  are  frost  and  blight.  The  assurance  of  practically  annual  crops 
is  necessary  in  order  that  there  may  be  justification  for  the  expenditure 
of  large  amounts  of  money  in  the  fight  to  control  pear  blight.  Cali- 


FIG.   3.     Orchard  scene  in  the  "Southern  California  Desert  Region"  near  its 
northern  extremity  in  Kern  County. 

fornia  pear  growers  are  extremely  fortunate  in  this  respect  and  in  many 
sections  there  is  little  thought  of  any  injury  from  spring  frosts,  and 
while  each  year's  crop  varies  in  its  size,  there  is  nearly  always  an 
abundance  of  fruit.  In  a  few  places  the  frost  hazard  must  be  reckoned 
with,  and  orchard  heaters  can  sometimes  be  used  to  good  advantage. 

An  attempt  was  made,  in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  to  gather 
figures  on  the  acreage  of  pears  grown  in  other  states  of  the  Union  which 
were  rated  as  being  of  considerable  importance  as  far  as  this  industry 
is  concerned.  As  a  basis  for  estimates  the  census  figures  of  1910, 
showing  the  acreage  of  pears  in  the  various  states  of  the  Union  during 
that  year  were  taken.  A  letter  was  written  to  some  noted  horticul- 
turist or  to  an  experiment  station  director  in  each  of  these  states,  and  a 
request  was  made  for  information  as  to  the  present  acreage  in  pears  in 
comparison  with  that  given  in  the  census  report  for  1910.  It  is  a  very 
significant  fact  that  without  a  single  exception  the  answers  that  came 
to  us  from  the  eastern  and  middle  western  states  showed  that  the 
acreage  of  pears  had  either  remained  the  same  or  had  decreased  rather 
than  increased  since  1910,  and  that  the  decrease  was  due  to  the  ravages 
of  blight  and  the  inability  of  the  growers  to  control  the  disease.  As  an 


226  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

illustration  of  this  fact  a  very  significant  letter  came  from  C.  S.  Cran- 
dall,  professor  of  pomology  in  the  University  of  Illinois,  which  we 
quote  from  as  follows: 

"From  1900  to  1905  there  was  a  craze,  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  state,  for  planting  orchards  of  Kieffer  pears  under  the  belief 
that  this  variety  was  immune  to  blight  and  under  the  stimulus  of 
good  crops  produced  in  some  orchards  planted  ten  or  twelve  years 
previously.  But  these  orchards  have  gradually  succumbed  to  blight 
and  it  is  my  belief  that  the  number  of  existing  trees  is  very  much 
less  than  the  number  indicated  in  the  census  returns  for  1910. 

"For  the  last  ten  years  our  Horticultural  Society  Keports  men- 
tion the  pear  only  in  connection  with  efforts  to  control  blight  and 
during  this  period  there  has  been  little,  if  any,  planting  for  orchard 
purposes.  Doubtless  a  few  trees  are  planted  every  year  in  home 
gardens,  but,  in  general,  there  is  no  interest  in  this  fruit.  There 
are,  here  and  there,  old.  trees  that  are  still  free  from  blight  and 
bearing  crops  and  it  is  possible  that  there  are  a  few  isolated  small 
orchards  still  in  productive  condition,  but  as  an  orchard  crop  the 
pear  is  not  now  receiving  any  attention  from  fruit  men. ' ' 

No  less  striking  cases  of  decrease  in  the  acreage  of  pears  in  other 
states  than  that  given  in  Professor  Crandall's  letter  are  cited  in  letters 
from  Professor  L.  R.  Taft,  State  Inspector  of  Nurseries  and  Orchards, 
East  Lansing,  Michigan;  and  Professor  Wendell  Paddock,  horticul- 
turist of  the  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus.  We  quote  from  Pro- 
fessor Taft's  letter  as  follows: 

"The  general  crop  report  of  the  Secretary  of  State  gives  the 
number  of  trees  in  bearing  as  909,200.  During  the  last  eight  years 
a  large  number  of  trees  have  been  taken  out  owing  to  the  injury 
from  pear  blight  or  because  they  have  not  been  found  profitable. 
On  the  other  hand  comparatively  few  trees  have  been  planted." 

The  census  of  1910  showed  the  number  of  bearing  trees  in  Michigan  to 
be.  1,136,151. 

Professor  Paddock  states  in  his  letter  that  "blight  has  been  very 
severe  in  the  state  of  Ohio  for  the  past  three  years,  with  the  result  that 
a  great  many  pear  trees  were  killed  and  many  others  have  been 
destroyed  by  the  owners,  so  our  number  of  pear  trees  has  been  very 
much  depleted."  *  *  *  "I  doubt  very  much  whether  there  are 
100,000  able-bodied  pear  trees  of  all  descriptions  in  this  state."  The 
census  report  of  1910  shows  that  at  that  time  there  were  899,019  bearing 
pear  trees  in  the  state  of  Ohio. 

The  only  states  of  the  Union  where  the  pear  industry  is  on  the 
increase  rather  than  the  decrease  are  California,  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. New  York,  which  leads  in  acreage,  with  2,141,596  bearing 
trees,  has  apparently  held  its  own  since  the  census  of  1910,  according 
to  the  best  available  figures.  California  has  increased  since  that  time 
from  1,410,996  bearing  trees  to  1,894,300  and  ranks  next  to  New  York 
in  the  number  of  acres  of  pear  orchards.  While  accurate  figures  could 
not  be  secured  on  bearing  acreage  in  Oregon,  it  is  probable  that  she 
ranks  third,  Michigan  having  practically  the  same  acreage. 


PEAR   GROWING    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


227 


The  effect  of  blight  in  limiting  planting  in  other  states  has  also  had  a 
similar  effect,  but  in  a  lesser  degree,  in  California.  Thus,  while  our 
acreage  has  greatly  increased  since  the  year  1910,  many  have  not 
planted  because  of  the  fear  of  blight  and  the  possibility  of  losing  an 
orchard  from  this  disease  after  the  expense  of  planting  and  caring  for 
it  during  a  few  years  of  its  life. 

Another  significant  fact  regarding  the  pear  industry,  especially  of 
the  south  and  middle  west,  is  that  it  has  been  a  failure  despite  the  fact 
that  the  Kieffer  variety,  which  is  much  more  resistant  to  blight  than  the 
Bartlett,  has  been  grown.  Such  failure  can  only  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  the  growers  have  not  made  the  effort  characteristic  of  the 
California  pear  growers  in  the  fight  against  this  disease.  While  we 
should  not  glory  in  others'  misfortune  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
failures  of  the  pear  growers  in  other  states  have  had  a  beneficial  effect 
upon  the  industry  in  this  state,  and  a  better  market  and  better  prices 
have  come  about  because  of  scarcity  of  a  cosmopolitan  fruit,  the  produc- 
tion of  which  has  been  limited  by  the  attack  of  a  fatal  disease. 

TABLE   SHOWING  THE   ACREAGE   OF   PEARS   IN   CALIFORNIA   BY 
COUNTIES  IN  1917. 


County 

Acres  of  pears 

County 

Acres  of  pears 

Hearing 

Non- 
bearing 

Hearing 

Non- 
bearing 

Alameda 

800 
225 
40 
850 
500 
40 
50 
82 
250 
190 
600 
534 
15 
50 
105 
450 
100 
28 
500 
700 
25 
2,000 

250 
270 
20 
1,250. 

r.ooo 

800 
SO 

450 
1,075 
2,000 
5,450 
15 
90 
100 
1,100 
20 
4 
500 
2,400 

610 

Riv°rside 

405 
3,300 
147 
202 
118 
402 
141 
20 
1,530 
50 
100 
45 
1,000 
1,150 
232 
109 
680 
975 
495 

593 
1,700 
768 
998 
429 
256 
2,439 

223 
400 
31 
15 
230 
555 
6 
83 
154 
792 
1,100 

Butte    

Colusa    

Sacramento   

San  B°nito 

Contra   Costa   _ 

San  Bernardino 

El  Dorado 

San  Diego 

Glenn  _  _ 

San  Joaquin 

Humboldt 

San    Luis    Obfcpo 

Imperial 

Santa  Barbara 

Tnyo 

Kern  .    _.    __ 

Santa  Cruz 

Lake  

Shasta 

Los  Angsles  

Siskiyou 

Madera  

Solano* 

Marin  

Sonoma 

Monterey  

Stanislaus 

M°ndocino  -  - 

SuttQr 

Merced  ___      .. 

TQhama 

Modoc  _ 

Volo 

Nap  a 

Yuba 

Nevada 

Totals 

Orange 

19,233 

28,069 

PIac°r 

*1916  figures. 


COST  OF  BRINGING  AN  ORCHARD  INTO  BEARING. 

The  prospective  pear  grower  frequently  wishes  to  secure  accurate 
information  as  to  what  it  will  cost  to  plant  an  orchard  and  bring  it  into 
bearing.  Figures  of  this  kind  must  necessarily  vary  with  locality  and  it 
is  exceedingly  hard  to  secure  information  along  this  line.  The  follow- 
ing estimate  of  the  cost  of  developing  a  20-acre  orchard  of  pears  in  the 
foothill  region  of  Butte  County  was  written  for  a  recent  number  of 
the  Monthly  Bulletin  by  Mr.  E.  Meriam,  of  Paradise,  California: 


228  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

"The  land  when  purchased  was  rough  land.  Nearly  the  entire 
work  was  done  by  hired  men  and  teams,  day  work,  often  not  imme- 
diately superintended.  The  wages  were  usually  $2  for  nine  hours' 
labor,  and  $4  for  man  and  team.  Not  much  personal  time  was 
given  to  the  work,  so  no  account  was  kept  of  it.  However,  it  would 
be  fair  to  add  10  per  cent  to  the  cost  for  personal  labor.  (If  any 
one  should  use  these  figures  as  a  basis  for  his  own  operation,  if  he 
intends  to  do  his  own  work,  he  should  deduct  10  per  cent  because 
.  an  owner  usually  works  more  intelligently  and  harder  than  an 
employee. ) 

' { The  land  was  covered  as  follows :  Ten  acres  in  native  forest  of 
fairly  heavy  growth  oak,  pine  and  manzanita,  and  ten  acres  in 
stumps  and  logs  with  a  second  growth  manzanita,  which  required 
mattocks  to  remove.  The  removal  of  rocks  was  not  an  important 
item  of  expense,  possibly  $50.  In  the  spring  of  1913,  as  many  men 
were  employed  as  possible  to  clean  the  land  quickly,  and  especially 
to  cut  the  marketable  wood,  with  the  expectation  that  the  wood 
would  pay  in  large  part  for  the  clearing.  This  worked  out  very 
satisfactorily. 

"By  June,  1914,  the  rough  land  was  sufficiently  cleared  to  permit 
plowing  half  of  it  and  the  setting  of  1,000  trees.  The  next  year,  in 
January,  1915,  the  remainder  of  the  20  acres  was  planted.  There 
are  now  on  the  place  850  pear  trees,  850  apples  and  100  border 
trees  of  cherry  and  walnut.  These  trees  are  vigorous  and  of  good 
size  for  their  age.  The  items  of  expense  which  remain  until  trees 
come  into  bearing  consist  of  cultivation  and  plowing.  For  this 
$200  a  year  will  undoubtedly  be  sufficient.  The  actual  expendi- 
tures to  date  (March  1913-August",  1916),  are  as  follows: 

"COST   OF   LAND  AT   $50  PER  ACRE $1,000    00 

Blasting  powder $49  90 

Tools  for  clearing 9  60 

Wood  cutting  and  clearing 717  30 

Wood  hauling  to  market 371  90 

Incidentals  in  clearing 2  60 

1.151  30 


$2,151  30 

PLANTING  THE  ORCHARD. 

Rabbit-proof  fence  and  construction $121  15 

Orchard  tools 15  20 

Cost  of  trees  (best  of  their  kind) 218  35 

Tree  planting  (entire  process) 261  45 

616  15 

CARE  OF  ORCHARD. 

Plowing  and  cultivating $211  50 

Lime  for  whitewash,  etc - 3  00 

Pruning  (largely  done  by  self) 5  75 

220  25 


Total  cost,  including  land $2,987  70 

Received  for  wood__  906  10 


Net  expenses,  exclusive  of  personal  service $2,081  60' 


10 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  229 

COST    OF    PRODUCTION    OF    FULL-BEARING    TREES. 

In  1914  Deputy  County  Horticultural  Commissioner  of  Sacramento 
County,  Mr.  F.  C.  Brosius,  prepared  an  article  for  the  Monthly  Bulletin 
of  the  State  Commission  of  Horticulture  on  the  cost  of  producing  pears, 
from  25  to  40-year-old  trees  in  an  orchard  containing  1,000  bearing 
trees.  The  following  table  is  copied  from  the  article  as  published  at 
that  time.  It  contains  much  information  which  is  of  interest  as  well  as 
of  much  value  to  the  pear  grower: 

"Yield  From  1,000  Pear  Trees,  25  to  40  Years  Old,  189  Tons  or  7,000  Packed  Boxes. 

CULTURAL    COST. 

Pruning,  one  man,  7  trees  per  day,  at  $1.75,  or  25  cents  per  tree $250  00 

Pear  blight  pruning  in  spring,  at  20  cents  per  tree 200  00 

Plowing,  one  man,  one  acre  per  day,  at  $2.25  per  day 43  00 

(6f  acres,  3  cultivations,  19  days) 

Pumping,  irrigating  on  6£  acres,  at  $7.50  per  acre,  per  season 47  50 

Hauling  from  orchard  to  packing  shed,  one  man,  19  days  and  $2.25 

per  day   42  75 

Two  tons  fertilizer,  at  $38.00  per  ton 70  00 

One  team,  130  days,  cultivating,  spraying,  hauling,  etc.,  feeding  at 

$1.00  per  day 130  00 

COST   OF    SPRAYING. 

For  thrips : 

22  gallons  distillate  per  tank,  at  18  cents  per  gal.,  or 

30  trees -- $3  96 

One  pint  black  leaf  "40"  per  tank,  or  30  trees 1  25 

-  $5  21 

Or  17  cents  per  tree  for  spraying  1,000  trees  twice  in  season 340  00 

For  codling  moth  and  thrips  : 

12  pounds  lead  arsenate  per  tank,  or  30  trees,  at $1  20 

One  pint  black  leaf  "40"  per  tank,  or  30  trees 1  25 

-  $2  45 

Or  9  cents  per  tree  for  spraying  1,000  trees  three  times  in  season__         270  00 
For  pear  scab : 

500  pounds  lime-sulphur  spray,  at  7i  cents  per  pound 36  25 

(One  special  spraying  and  one  combined  with  codling  moth  spray) 
Labor : 

Three  hose  men,  one  driver,  at  $2.25  per  day ;  5  tanks,  or  150  trees 

per  day,  4  sprayings  in  season  of  42  days 378  00 

PICKING   AND   PACKING. 

Picking : 

One  man,  30  boxes  per  day,  at  $2.25,  or  74  cents  per  box,  7,000 

boxes    " 525  00 

Shook,  nails,  paper,  12  cents  per  box,  7,000  boxes 840  00 

Making  boxes  and  packing,  6  cents  per  box,  7,000  boxes 420  00 


Total  cost  of  production $3,598  50 

RECEIPTS. 

189  tons,  or  7,000  boxes,  at  $1.10  net $7,700  00 

Deduct  cost  of  production 3,598  50 


Balance    __ .  $4,101  50" 

The  above  estimate  of  the  cost  of  production  was  made  at  a  time  when 
labor  was  more  plentiful  and  much  cheaper  than  at  the  present  time. 
However,  the  average  is  believed  to  be  fair.  This  case  is  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  amount  of  money  that  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
invest  in  order  to  make  an  orchard  pay  for  itself.  Without  spraying, 
pruning,  cultivation  and  all  those  things  which  go  toward  making  a 
success  of  an  orchard  such  profits  could  not  possibly  be  made. 


11 


230  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

PRODUCTION  AND   PRICES. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  production  of  this  particular  orchard  was 
about  28  tons  per  acre.  This  is  an  exceptionally  high  yield  and 
is  away  above  the  average,  for  even  in  the  Sacramento  Val- 
ley, where  trees  produce  more  than  in  any  other  section  of  the 
state,  the  average  would  not  be  higher  than  10  tons  per  acre. 
Prior  to  beginning  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin  a  questionnaire  was 
sent  to  a  number  of  the  leading  pear  growers  of  the  counties  where  the 
production  of  this  fruit  is  of  considerable  importance  and  65  of  the  total 
number  written  replied  to  the  questionnaire.  In  answer  to  a  question 
regarding  the  average  production  of  bearing  orchards  these  growers 
estimated  10  tons  per  acre  to  be  a  fair  average.  This  is  not  at  all  an 
impossible  amount  for  the  better  pear-growing  sections.  The  average 
yield  throughout  the  entire  state,  however,  would  be  much  lower  than 
this  and  possibly  not  more  than  one-half  of  this  amount,  or  5  tons  per 
acre.  The  average  maximum  yield,  as  reported  by  the  same  65  growers, 
was  23  tons  per  acre  and  the  average  age  of  the  trees  reported  upon  was 
18  years. 

Prices  received  for  the  earlier  pears  are  always  satisfactory  and 
$3.50  per  box  is  not  an  exceptionally  high  price  for  the  first  Bart- 
letts  of  the  season.  The  average  price  for  Bartletts  throughout  the 
season  would  probably  not  be  more  than  $1.30  per  packed  box. 
Authentic  figures  from  one  locality  show  this  amount  for  a  ten-year 
average.  Like  the  very  early  pears,  those  that  are  very  late,  and  as  a 
consequence  reach  the  market  at  a  time  when  the  early  fruit  has  all 
been  sold,  frequently  bring  a  much  higher  price  than  the  average. 
The  canneries  pay  from  $35  to  $50  per  ton  for  fruit  for  canning  pur- 
poses. Other  varieties,  such  as  Winter  Nelis,  Cornice,  Anjou  and  Bosc, 
often  sell  for  fully  as  good,  if  not  better,  prices  than  Bartletts.  Winter 
Nelis,  being  a  late  variety  and  thus  supplying  the  market  after  the 
other  varieties  mentioned  are  gone,  nearly  always  bring  a  very  satis- 
factory price. 

PEAR  REGIONS  OF  THE  STATE. 

As  the  pear  is  very  generally  grown,  and  as  there  are  more  or  less 
well-defined  areas  where  orchards  may  be  found,  the  state  has  been 
divided  into  eight  regions.  These,  with  a  definition  of  their  limits,  are 
as  follows: 

Northern  California  Coast  Region — All  Coast  Range  counties  or  por- 
tions of  counties  from  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  to  the 
northern  line  of  Sonoma  and  Napa  counties. 

Central  California  Coast  Region — All  Coast  Range  counties  or  portions 
of  counties  from  the  northern  boundary  of  Sonoma  and  Napa  coun- 
ties to  the  northern  boundary  of  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura  and  Los 
Angeles  counties. 

Southern  California  Coast  Region — All  counties  bordering  on  the  Pacific 
from  the  northern  line  of  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura  and  Los  Angeles 
counties  to  the  southern  line  of  the  state. 


12 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  231 

Northern  and  Central  California  Interior  Valley  Region — All  interior 

counties  or  portions  of  counties,  included  in  the  Sacramento,  San 

Joaquin  and  other  inland  river  valleys  from  the  northern  boundary 

of  Tehama  County  to  the  Tehachapi  Mountains. 
Southern  California  Desert  Region — The  dry  desert  sections  of  Kern, 

Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 
Imperial  Valley  Region — The  low,  arid,  hot  agricultural  sections  of 

Riverside  and  Imperial  counties. 
Sierra  Nevada  Foothill  and  Mountain  Region — All  counties  or  portions 

of  counties  in  the  foothills  or  mountains  proper  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 

Range  on  the  western  slope. 
Modoc-Inyo  Region —  All  sections  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 

in  California  possessing  the  rigorous  climate  of  Modoc  County  on  the 

north  and  Inyo  on  the  south. 


13 


232  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER   II. 

VARIETIES. 

In  California  where  most  of  the  pear  acreage  is  of  one  variety  and 
where  the  average  planter  thinks  only  of  the  Bartlett  when  he  considers 
the  planting  of  a  commercial  orchard,  there  may  be  those  who  would 
consider  a  discussion  of  other  varieties  superfluous.  Admitting  that  the 
Bartlett  is  best  for  general-purpose  planting  in  the  state,  the  ques- 
tion is  exceedingly  important  from  the  standpoint  of  data  regard- 
ing varieties  that  are  well  adapted  for  cross-pollination  purposes. 
The  Bartlett  in  California  is  generally  considered  to  be  self-fertile. 
While  it  is  a  fact  that  it  is  self -fertile  to  the  extent  that  large  areas  will 
produce  well  year  after  year  with  no  other  varieties  close  by  from  which 
they  might  receive  the  benefit  of  pollen  other  than  their  own,  this 
variety,  along  with  all  other  varieties  of  pears,  is  considered  in  most 
locations  to  be  practically  self-sterile,  and  is  not  recommended  for 
planting  in  blocks  by  itself.  Thus  we  find  the  two  conditions  repre- 
sented by  self -fertility  in  one  section,  and  self -sterility  wholly  or  in  part 
in  another,  and  the  only  reason  we  can  assign  for  this  state  of  affairs  is 
that  when  grown  where  every  condition  is  favorable  Bartlett  is  self- 
fertile  in  a  certain  degree ;  in  the  absence  of  certain  factors  which  have 
not  been  determined  it  is  more  or  less  self-sterile.  Between  the  two 
extremes  of  self-fertility  and  self-sterility  we  can  imagine  innumerable 
degrees  of  fertility,  and  possibly  in  California,  where  the  Bartlett  is 
thought  to  be  self -fertile  and  where  uniformly  good  crops  are  produced 
year  after  year  remote  from  other  varieties,  it  possesses  a  high  degree 
of  fertility  with  the  possibility  of  an  increase  to  a  still  higher  degree 
when  subjected  to  the  influence  of  foreign  pollen.  There  is  considerable 
evidence  to  substantiate  this  theory.  Warren  P.  Tufts  of  the 
University  of  California  Farm  School  at  Davis,  in  a  recent  letter  gave 
the  following  information: 

'  *  Experiments  on  rather  a  small  scale  have  been  conducted  by  the 
writer  during  the  past  two  seasons  in  the  University  Orchards  at 
Davis.  The  results  of  these  tests  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Bartlett 
under  the  interior  valley  conditions  of  California  will  set  a  com- 
paratively light  crop  with  its  own  pollen,  but  that  if  interplanted 
with  the  proper  varieties,  the  per  cent  of  blossoms  setting  fruit 
will  be  increased  five  or  six  times.  From  conversation  with  growers 
in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  I  find  that  it  has  also  been  their  obser- 
vation that  Bartlett  pears  in  close  proximity  to  other  varieties 
regularly  set  a  larger  crop  than  other  trees  farther  removed  from 
the  interplanted  pollinizers. 

"Under  conditions  existing  in  the  foothills,  progressive  and 
observing  growers  commonly  regard  interplanting  of  pear  varieties 
for  purposes  of  cross-pollination  absolutely  essential. 

"Taken  on  the  whole,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  in  the  valleys 
of  California  and  assuredly  in  the  foothills,  interplanting  of  varie- 
ties will  yield  goodly  returns.  Naturally,  the  valley  grower  will 
want  to  plant  as  many  Bartletts  and  as  few  pollinizers  as  possible. 

14 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  233 

There  is  little  definite  information  on  this  point,  although  we  do 
know  that  the  influence  of  pollinizers  varies  inversely  with  the  dis- 
tance. In  order  to  secure  efficient  pollination  with  the  fewest 
possible  pollinizers,  I  would  recommend  1  to  7  or  8  and  would  place 
the  pollinizers  as  every  third  tree  in  every  third  row,  in  such  a 
way  that  the  spaces  in  the  pollination  rows  are  broken,  thus : 


In  substantiation  of  Mr.  Tufts'  conclusions,  the  writer  knows  of 
one  large  pear  orchard  which  has  growing  in  it  a  few  Winter  Nelis 
trees.  The  owner  of  the  orchard  has  pointed  out  to  me  the  load  of  fruit 
on  surrounding  Bartletts,  which  is  considerably  heavier  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  orchard.  Every  year  it  is  said  these  Bartletts  are  the 
heaviest  producers  in  the  orchard.  One  exceedingly  interesting  case  of 
increased  productivity  of  the  Bartlett  through  cross-pollination  is  found 
in  the  experience  of  Mr.  A.  L.  Wisker  at  Grass  Valley.  In  experiment- 
ing with  many  different  varieties  of  pears,  Mr.  Wisker  had  occasion 
to  graft  over  a  portion  of  a  block  of  old  trees  containing  only  Bartletts, 
to  a  miscellaneous  lot  of  other  varieties.  In  1913,  according  to  Mr. 
Wisker 's  statement,  31  of  the  Bartlett  trees  that  were  left  in  the  block 
bore  13  boxes  of  marketable  pears.  With  eight  other  varieties  in  bloom 
during  the  season  of  1914,  26  boxes  were  produced.  In  1915,  with  over 
fifty  varieties  blooming,  the  production  of  these  same  31  trees  was 
78  boxes  of  marketable  pears  and  30  boxes  of  culls,  the  latter  because 
of  blister  mite  attack.  As  the  trees  are  over  fifteen  years  of  age  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  during  the  three  successive 
seasons  could  not  be  attributed  to  the  increase  in  age,  and  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  beneficial  effect  of  the  pollen  from  the  other  varie- 
ties which  were  introduced  into  the  orchard  by  grafting. 

*Bulk  of  planting. 
"Pollinizer. 


15 


234  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

A  careful  investigation  of  the  subject  of  cross-pollination  in  the  state 
would  no  doubt  show  that  these  two  cases  cited  are  in  no  way  excep- 
tional and  that  the  best  results  in  growing  Bartlett  pears  can  not  be 
attained  unless  other  varieties  are  planted  with  them  in  the  orchard. 
Despite  the  evidence  that  this  should  be  done,  there  are  thousands  of 
acres  of  Bartletts  being  planted  in  California  each  season  with  utter 
disregard  of  the  benefits  that  might  be  derived  by  planting  one  or  more 
varieties  of  another  sort  for  cross-pollination.  In  certain  new  pear- 
growing  sections,  the  writer  has  recently  seen  thousands  of  acres  of 
Bartletts  in  blocks  of  five  acres  to  more  than  one  hundred  acres  each, 
with  no  other  varieties  near,  except  possibly  an  occasional  tree  of  some 
favorite  pear  planted  for  home  use.  In  some  of  these  sections  heavy 
winds  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  occur,  making  more  necessary  the 
strictest  attention  to  every  detail  that  would  tend  to  increase  produc- 
tivity. The  fruit  in  general  is  good,  and  the  trees  everywhere  have  done 
well.  As  far  as  it  has  been  possible  to  determine,  they  are  self -fertile 
to  a  remarkable  degree  when  the  existing  conditions  are  taken  into 
consideration,  but  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  there  will  be  years  of  short 
crops  because  of  the  absence  of  other  pears,  and  the  average  produc- 
tion of  these  sections  throughout  a  series  of  years  will  be  far  below  what 
it  would  be  with  other  varieties  planted  along  with  the  Bartletts  for 
cross-pollination  purposes.  There  are  older  pear-growing  sections  of 
the  state  where  large  areas  of  Bartletts  have  been  planted  by  them- 
selves and  where  the  same  arguments  against  the  practice  may  be  used. 

Without  doubt,  there  will  be  those  who  will  take  exception  to  this 
discussion  on  the  need  for  pollinizers  in  the  Bartlett  orchard,  and,  in 
defense  of  the  system  of  planting  this  variety  alone,  will  point  to  the 
many  good  orchards  in  the  state  which  have  paid  their  owners  a  good 
profit  year  after  year.  In  answer,  we  can  only  say  that  while  this  is 
true  the  evidence  all  points  to  the  beneficial  effect  of  cross-pollination, 
and  such  orchards  would  have  yielded  uniformly  better  crops  during 
the  same  period  of  time  and  a  greater  production  from  a  lesser  number 
of  trees  had  other-  varieties  been  interplanted. 

A  knowledge  of  the  value  of  pollinizers  for  interplanting  with  the 
justly  popular  Bartlett  makes  it  desirable  that  other  varieties  be  care- 
fully tested  in  the  different  pear-growing  regions  of  the  state  in  order 
that  the*  best  commercial  varieties  that  are  good  pollinizers  may  be 
determined.  There  is  need  for  carefully-planned  experiments  along  this 
line  and  the  task  is  one  that  would  require  a  great  many  years'  labor. 
Already  something  has  been  done.  The  California  Nursery  Company 
at  Niles  has  a  test  block  of  more  than  80  varieties,  while  Mr.  Wisker 
has  80  varieties  in  his  experimental  orchard  at  Grass  Valley.  The  state 
is  fortunate  in  having  these  two  splendid  experimental  orchards  and  in 
time  better  varieties  than  we  have  yet  known. may  be  found;  at  least 
better  from  the  standpoint  of  something  that  is  well  adapted  for  plant- 
ing with  the  Bartlett. 

The  most  popular  variety  for  this  purpose  at  present  is  the  Winter 
Nelis,  and  in  many  of  the  older  orchards  where  some  attention  has  been 
paid  to  interplanting,  this  variety  has  been  found.  Hardy  and  Easter 
Beurre  have  been  used  quite  extensively  in  the  past  but  most  of  the 
trees  of  these  varieties  have  in  late  years,  been  grafted  to  Bartlett. 

16 


1'KAR    liUmviNG    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


235 


For  the  best  results  in  the  cross-pollination  of  varieties  it  is  necessary 
to  select  those  that  bloom  at  approximately  the  same  time.  The  follow- 
ing table,  which  was  prepared  by  A.  L.  Wisker,  shows  the  time  of 
blooming  of  a  number  of  different  varieties  for  the  years  1915  and 
1916,  also  the  dates  when  these  varieties  were  in  full  bloom  during  the 
same  two  seasons.  This  list  contains  many  of  the  varieties  which  are 
commonly  grown : 

TABLE  SHOWING   DATES  OF   FIRST  BLOOM   AND  FULL   BLOOM. 


First  bloom 

Full  bloom 

1015 

1916 

1915 

1916 

Alencon           ._    _.         -_      

Mar.  25 
April   7 
April   1 
April   2 
April   4 
April   1 
April   8 

Mar.  12 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  15 
Mar  17 

April   4 
April  11 
April   8 
April  10 
April  10 
April  10 
April  12 

Mar.  15 

•\ngers 

Angouleme        -         -.    --                      - 

Mar.  17 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  24 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  22 

Anjou             -                                                                       

Bartl°tt                                           -.                               —       

Bloodgood 

Bordeaux                                                                                  -    - 

Boussock         --                                                                     

April   7 
Mar.  25 
Mar.  29 
Mar.  30 

Mar.  14 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  15 

April  11 
April   4 
April    8 
April   8 

Bretonneau 

Cardinal 

Clairg°au 

Clapp  Favorit0 

Columbia                                            -_              --    --           

April   5 
April   5 
April   6 
Mar.  31 
April   3 
April   3 
April   7 
Mar.  29 
Mar.  30 
April   2 
April   1 
April   4 
Mar.  31 
April   6 
Mar.  31 
April   8 
April   7 
Mar.  23 
April   1 

April  10 
April  11 
April  10 
April   8 
April  10 
April   i) 
April  11 
April   8 
April   8 
April   9 
April   7 
April   9 
April   8 
April  10 
April   8 
April  12 
April  11 
April   3 
April   8 

Comic0   '                              t 

Congr°ss 

Mar.  16 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  15 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  15 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  15 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  11 
Mar.  13 
Mar  I9 

Mar.  20 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  22 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  22 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  19 
Mar,  21 
Mar.  15 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  IG 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  22 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  26 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  20 
Mar.  22 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  18 

Dearborn  Seedling 

Di°l 

Dix  '                    — 

Flemish  Beauty 

Forelle       .„      _  —     — 

Gaillard    ..        ..                       _.        

Gansel's  Bergamot 

Giffard 

Glout  MorcQau 

Gris  d'Hiver 

Hardy 

Howel] 

Idaho 

Joan   of  Arc  _.       __           _.         

Kieffer 

Lawrence  -  .-                                 __    _. 

Lawson 

Le  Clerc  

April   2 
April   5 

Mar.  15 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  13 

April  12 
April   S 

Le  Lectier 

Louise  Bonne 

Lucien  Chaure 

April   7 
April   2 
April   2 

Mar.  17 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  14 
Mar  15 

April  11 
April   9 
April   9 

Madeleine 

Margaret  Marillat 

Marshall 

Mt.  Veraon  .    _ 

Mar.  30 
April  7 
April   2 
April   2 
April   8 
April   5 

Mar.  13 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  17 
Mar  14 

April    6 
April  12 
April   8 
April   8 
April  15 
April  10 

Onondaga  _. 

P.  Barry  

Philopena   _ 

Poiteau    

Rossney   _-    _ 

Seckel 

Summer  Doyenne  _  

April   1 
April   5 
Mar.  30 

Mar.  14 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  15 
Mar  14 

April   9 
April  10 
April   8 

Superfln 

Touraine 

Urbaniste 

Vanill" 

April   1 
April   2 
Mar.  30 
April   6 

Mar.  15 
Mar.  16 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  15 
Mar  16 

April   9 
April   8 
April   8 
April  10 

Vicar   .._  

Vienne    

White  Doyenne  

Winter  Bartlett 

Worcester 

April  6 
Mar.  30 

Mar.  15 
Mar.  13 

April  11 
April   7 

Zoe 

2—37406 


17 


236 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 
LEAF  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  VARIETIES. 


The  studies  made  during  the  course  of  preparation  of  this  bulletin 
revealed  some  interesting  facts  regarding  the  leaf  characteristics  of 
species  and  varieties  of  pears.  Each  species,  as  would  naturally  be 
expected,  possesses  an  entirely  different  form  of  leaf,  by  means  of  which 
its  identification  wherever  the  species  might  be  found  would  be  practi- 
cally certain.  The  variation  is  much  greater  than  would  be  supposed  by 
those  who  are  not  familiar  with  a  number  of  different  species.  The 
leaves  shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5  illustrate  this  point  clearly.  In  Pyrus 


FIG.  4.    Leaf  of  Pyrus  heterophylla. 


FIG.  5.    Leaf  of  Pyrus  variolosa. 


heterophylla  is  found  the  extreme  type  of  lobed  leaf.  This  leaf  has 
little  to  suggest  that  it  belongs  to  a  pear  tree.  The  other  has  more  of  the 
characteristic  shape  of  the  cultivated  varieties.  The  serration  is  more 
prominent  in  most  of  the  wild  species  than  in  our  cultivated  varieties. 
The  serration  furnishes  one  of  the  important  identification  character- 
istics. In  some  varieties  there  occurs  a  small,  regular  serration  as  in 
Bartlett ;  in  others  it  is  irregular.  Certain  varieties,  e.  g.,  Winter  Nelis, 
Anjou  and  Bosc,  have  practically  no  serration,  although  the  leaf 
margins  may  be  more  or  less  wavy.  The  general  shape  of  the  leaf 
differs  markedly  with  different  varieties  and  while  there  is  a  wide  varia- 
tion between  individuals  on  the  same  tree,  it  is  not  difficult  to  pick  the 
common  shape  that  is  characteristic  of  the  variety.  The  apex  and  stem 
also  furnish  distinguishing  characteristics.  Here,  again,  the  variation 
is  sometimes  confusing  but  the  characteristics  that  most  of  the  leaves 
possess  soon  become  fixed  in  one's  mind  as  he  studies  them.  Contrary 
to  expectation,  the  length  of  petiole  is  so  variable  that  little  stress  can 
be  laid  upon  this  characteristic  as  an  aid  in  the  identification  of  varie- 
ties. For  example,  the  length  of  petioles  of  leaves  of  the  Winter 
Nelis  variety  collected  at  Niles  and  at  Lakeport  varied  from 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  237 

an  average  length  of  .96  inches  in  the  former  case  to  1.57  inches 
in  the  latter.  More  striking  still  is  the  difference  found  in  the 
case  of  Winter  Bartlett.  The  stems  of  leaves  collected  at  Yucaipa 
averaged  If3^  inches;  of  leaves  collected  at  Niles  2£  inches;  of  leaves 
collected  at  Tehachapi  1^  inches.  It  is  possible  that  characters 
of  venation  could  be  used  to  advantage  in  more  or  less  technical 
descriptions  of  leaves.  From  a  practical  point  of  view  it  was  not  con- 
sidered important  to  take  up  a  study  of  the  venation.  The  other 
characters  mentioned  are  all  extremely  important  and  are  illustrated  as 
well  as  possible  in  the  pictures  of  leaves  shown  along  with  the  fruit  of  a 
number  of  the  more  common  varieties.  An  attempt  was  made  in  each 
case  to  pick  out  a  leaf  that  was  as  nearly  characteristic  of  the  variety  as 
was  possible.  In  some  cases  it  was  difficult  to  find  a  leaf  at  the  time  of 
photographing  that  would  take  well  and  that  would  be  representative, 
but  on  the  whole  it  is  believed  that  fairly  accurate  photographs  have 
been  secured.  Leaves  of  practically  every  variety  described  were  gath- 
ered in  many  different  orchards  and  localities  of  California,  and  in  the 
case  of  a  few  varieties  and  species  samples  were  also  collected  in  Oregon 
and  Colorado.  Having  made  collections  so  generally  and  having  found 
only  a  very  slight  variation  in  general  characters  in  widely  separated 
localities,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  the  types  of  leaves  shown  will 
prove  valuable  as  an  aid  in  the  identification  of  varieties.  Relation- 
ships not  known  to  exist  between  different  varieties  are  frequently  sug- 
gested by  leaf  characters.  In  the  case  of  those  that  are  known  to  exist 
the  leaf  characters  of  one  or  the  other  parent  are  readily  distinguished. 
For  example,  the  Kieffer  is  known  to  be  a  cross  between  the  Bartlett 
and  Pyrus  serotina.  A  comparison  of  the  leaf  with  that  of  Pyrus  sero- 
tina  at  once  suggests  Japanese  pear  parentage.  The  deep,  prominent 
serration  of  the  Japanese  stock  has  been  replaced  in  the  hybrid  by  a 
type  of  serration  not  unlike  the  Bartlett.  The  Le  Conte  variety,  which 
is  a  hybrid  as  a  result  of  a  cross  between  the  Japanese  pear,  Pyrus  sero- 
tina, and  the  European  pear,  Pyrus  communis,  plainly  shows  its  Asiatic 
parentage  in  the  general  shape  of  the  leaf,  especially  in  the  long  apex, 
while  the  European  parentage  has  manifested  itself  in  a  broadening 
of  the  apex,  and  in  a  serration  very  much  like  that  of  Pyrus  communis. 
In  the  description  of  fruits  the  scheme  followed  is  quite  similar  to 
that  used  by  such  men  as  Downing.  More  stress  than  usual  has 
been  laid  upon  the  calyx  characteristic  as  to  whether  it  is  open  or  closed. 
Here,  again,  there  is  some  variation  with  locality  but  in  general  a  variety 
has  either  an  open  or  a  closed  calyx  and  this  characteristic,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  size  and  shape  of  the  basin,  is  considered  to  be  of  vital 
importance  in  identifying  varieties.  The  length  of  stem  is  a  more 
constant  character  than  in  the  case  of  leaves,  and  wherever  possible 
accurate  measurements  were  made  of  several  specimens  of  each  variety 
and  a  fair  average  length  decided  upon.  The  general  shape  of  each 
is  quite  characteristic  and  the  occurrence  of  green  or  brown  dots  is 
common.  The  illustrations  of  varieties  show  the  general  type  in  each 
case  where  it  was  possible  to  secure  samples  for  photographing.  The 
serration  characters  have,  in  a  few  cases,  been  destroyed  in  the  routing 
of  the  cuts. 


19 


238 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VARIETIES. 
Angouleme. 

Origin  France.  Size  large.  Color  greenish  yellow  with  russet.  Shape 
wide,  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  closed  or  partly  closed.  Basin  narrow 
and  rather  deep.  Stem  heavy,  1  to  H  inches  long.  Cavity  flat  and  wide, 
Quality  good.  Bather  coarse  grained  but  sweet,  juicy,  buttery  and 
pleasant  in  flavor ;  rather  strong.  This  variety  is  said  to  do  best  when 


.  6.     Leaf  of  Angouleme. 


FIG.  7.     Angouleme. 


dwarfed  on  quince  roots.  In  California  it  is  little  grown  at  the  present 
time,  but  is  a  variety  that  can  be  recommended  for  small  plantings. 
Its  season  lasts  from  early  fall  until  about  November. 

Anjou. 

The  Anjou  originated  in  France,  as  did  many  others  of  our  popular 
varieties.  Fruit  is  average  sized  to  large.  Skin  very  smooth  and 
attractive,  the  common  color  being  light  yellow  with  green  tinge,  some- 
times blush  on  one  side.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Open  calyx  set  in  a 
very  small,  shallow  regular  basin.  Stem  short,  about  f  of  an  inch. 
Cavity  small.  Surface  of  the  fruit  is  covered  with  small  brown  dots. 
Quality  very  good,  being  quite  fine  grained,  juicy  and  good  flavored. 
Strongly  aromatic. 

20 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


239 


Trees  of  this  variety  attain  a  large  size.  They  are  subject  to  blight 
but  otherwise  hardy.  Under  certain  conditions  the  Anjou  is  rated  as  a 
shy  bearer.  At  the  present  time  it  is  little  grown  in  the  state  but  is 
very  promising  for  the  higher  elevations  at  least,  where  it  has  done 


FIG. 


Leaf  of  Anjou. 


FIG.  9.     Anjou. 


well  in  limited  plantings.  It  is  a  variety  that  keeps  well  into -the 
winter,  under  favorable  storage  conditions.  In  1916  some  fine  speci- 
mens were  purchased  in  San  Francisco  on  December  28,  when  they 
were  firm  and  in  splendid  condition  for  table  use.  Its  season  is  gener- 
ally earlier  than  this  date,  and  most  of  the  fruit  is  gone  by  December  1. 

Bartlett. 

As  already  stated,  this  is  by  far  the  most  common  variety  grown  in 
California,  and  probably  between  80  and  90  per  cent  of  all 
pear  trees  in  the  state  are  Bartletts.  The  Santa  Clara  Valley 
furnishes  the  one  notable  exception  of  a  section  where  many 
other  kinds  are  grown  in  a  commercial  way.  There  also  the 
Bartlett  is  popular  and  could  not  be  considered  inferior  to  any  of  the 
other  varieties  that  are  found  in  that  section.  It  is  justly  popular  for 
a  number  of  reasons,  important  of  which  are  its  early,  regular  and 
heavy-bearing  tendencies,  very  good  quality,  unequaled  drying  and 
canning  characteristics,  good  shipping  qualities  and  wonderful  adapta- 
bility to  the  varying  soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  state.  Its  chief 
drawback  is  its  susceptibility  to  pear  blight.  While  there  are  other 
varieties  that  are  more  susceptible,  Bartlett  blights  very  readily  and  in 
sections  where  this  disease  is  prevalent  trees  are  almost  sure  to 


•2; 


240 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


contract  it.  The  Bartlett  originated  in  England,  where  it  was 
named  William 's  Bon  Chretien  and  where  it  is  still  known  by  that 
name.  Downing,  in  his  "Fruit  Trees  of  America"  states:  "When  first 
introduced  to  this  country  its  name  was  lost  and,  having  been  culti- 
vated and  disseminated  by  Enoch  Bartlett,  Esquire,  of  Dorchester  near 
Boston,  it  became  so  universally  known  as  the  Bartlett  pear  that  it  is 
impossible  to  dispossess  it  now." 

The  fruit  is  large,  attaining  on  an  average  2J  inches  at  the  time  of 
picking.  The  color  is  light  yellow,  with  a  beautiful  red  blush  when 
grown  under  conditions  favorable  to  coloring.  The  mountain  counties 
of  the  state  favor  the  coloring  of  Bartletts  and  many  beautiful  speci- 
mens are  grown  in  higher  altitudes  as  in  the  pear-growing  sections  of 
Lake,  Nevada,  Placer  and  El  Dorado  counties.  Ordinarily,  Bartlett  has 
a  clear,  smooth  skin  but  when  grown  under  certain  conditions  it  is 


FIG  10.     Leaf  of  Bartlett. 


FIG.  11.     Bartlett 


sometimes  irregular  and  roughened.  In  sections  of  high  wind  and 
extremes  of  temperature  it  becomes  misshapen.  The  quality  of  such 
fruit  may  be  fine  and  may  compare  very  well  with  that  grown  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions.  In  shape  it  is  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open 
or  partly  closed.  Basin  shallow  and  slightly  irregular.  Stem  quite 
heavy;  average  length  about  1  inch.  Cavity  small  and  regular.  Few 
pears  possess  a  finer  texture  or  better  quality.  It  is  sweet,  juicy. 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


241 


aromatic  and  buttery.  Ripening  takes  place  with  little  or  no  shrink- 
ing, even  when  picked  to  all  appearances  green.  The  possession  of  all 
these  characteristics  makes  the  Bartlett  the  leading  pear  of  California. 
The  trees  have  an  upright  habit  of  growth  and  require  careful 
pruning  to  outside  buds  and  branches  to  develop  a  proper  spread. 
As  they  get  older  and  heavy  loads  of  fruit  are  borne  this  habit  is 
overcome  to  a  large  extent.  The  size  attained  by  trees  of  the  Bartlett 
variety  is  not  as  great  as  in  the  case  of  many  others.  In  some  of  the 
mountain  sections  it  is  inclined  to  be  rather  small,  due  no  doubt  in 
many  instances  to  shallow  soil  and  lack  of  fertility  or  insufficient 
moisture,  and  in  others  to  heavy  production,  especially  while  young. 
Other  factors,  such  as  root  aphis,  crown  gall  and  blight,  may  be  respon- 


FIG.  12.  Large  Bartlett  tree  grown  in  fertile  soil  of  the  Sacramento  River  section  of 
Sacramento  County.  This  tree  illustrates  the  result  of  plenty  of  room  and  furnishes 
an  argument  against  planting  trees  too  close  together. 

sible  for  the  unusually  small  size  of  the  trees  in  some  sections.  When 
not  planted  too  close  together  in  the  orchard  and  if  soil  conditions  are 
favorable  they  often  attain  a  large  size.  Fig.  12  illustrates  a  case 
of  a  fine  large  tree  due  to  a  deep  rich  soil  and  plenty  of  room  for  the 
branches  to  spread.  The  branches  are  ordinarily  stocky  and  strong, 
requiring  very  little  or  no  propping  when  rightly  pruned.  Some  very 
large,  excellent  specimens  of  trees  may  be  seen  on  the  rich  alluvial 
soils  along  the  Sacramento  River.  One  tree  observed  was  planted 
in  1854.  It  is  still  in  prime  condition  and  bears  heavy  crops  of  fruit 
regularly.  More  often,  however,  size  is  sacrificed  for  numbers  of 
trees  per  acre,  which  in  the  early  years  of  an  orchard  at  least  results 
in  a  bigger  yield. 


242  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Blooming  takes  place  in  the  valley  sections  of  California  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  March,  the  date  varying  with  seasons.  In  1915 
the  writer's  notes  show  that  on  March  25  Bartletts  were  in  full  bloom 
on  the  Sacramento  River  at  Hood  and  Courtland,  and  also  in  the 
Santa  Clara  Valley  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Jose.  During  the  same 
season  trees  of  this  variety  were  in  full  bloom  near  Placerville,  El 
Dorado  County,  on  April  9. 

Picking  begins  in  the  earlier  sections  about  the  last  week  of  June 
or  first  week  of  July,  continuing  in  these  sections  until  the  middle 
of  August  or  later.  The  first  pears  picked  are  packed  and  shipped 
fresh  to  outside  markets,  while  much  of  the  later  picked  fruit  is 
handled  by  the  canneries.  In  the  mountain  counties  where  fruit  is 
grown  at  an  elevation  of  1,500  feet  or  more,  picking  begins  about  the 
middle  of  August,  lasting  well  into  September.  This  is  also  true  of 
the  Palmdale  and  Lancaster  sections  of  Los  Angeles  County  and  the 
Tehachapi  section  of  Kern  County,  where  despite  desert  conditions 
the  fruit  is  late  in  maturing.  This  later  picked  fruit  will  keep  in  cold 
storage  until  December  1  or  later,  while  the  earlier  picked  valley 
Bartletts  are  practically  all  consumed  by  November  1. 

Bloodgood   (New  York). 

Tree  short,  jointed,  deep  reddish-brown  wood.  Fruit  medium  tur- 
binate,  inclining  to  obovate,  thickening  abruptly  into  stalk.  Yel- 
low, sprinkled  with  russet  dots.  Calyx  strong,  open  almost  with- 
out depression.  Stalk  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  short 
fleshy  at  its  base.  Flesh  yellowish  white,  melting,  sugary,  aromatic, 
core  small.  (Description  by  Wickson.)* 

Bordeaux. 

Origin  France.  Size  large.  Color  light  yellow  with  light  blush. 
Skin  covered  with  small  brown  dots.  Shape  irregular  obtuse  pyriform. 
Calyx  open.  Basin  medium  to  large  size  and  slightly  corrugated. 
Stem  H  inch  long  or  more  and  very  heavy.  Cavity  small  and  incon- 
spicuous. Quality  medium.  Grown  only  experimentally  in  the  state. 
Season  very  late. 

Bosc. 

Origin  Belgium.  Fruit  large.  Shape  acute  pyriform,  very  long  and 
narrow.  Skin  yellow,  somewhat  rough  and  covered  almost  entirely 
with  a  heavy  brown  or  cinnamon  russet.  Calyx  open  and  set  in  a  very 
shallow  smooth  basin.  Stem  averages  about  H  inches  and  is  somewhat 
slender.  Cavity  small  or  absent.  Quality  best.  Flesh  white,  very 
buttery,  possessing  a  fine  flavor,  aromatic.  At  the  present  time  the 
Bosc  is  not  extensively  grown  in  California.  It  does  exceptionally 
well  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  and  is  considered  by  some  of  the  leading 
pear  growers  to  be  one  of  the  very  best  varieties  for  that  section.  In 
the  Rogue  River  Valley  of  Oregon,'  just  beyond  the  northern  California 
boundary,  it  reaches  its  prime.  The  trees  bear  evenly,  heavily  and 

*  "California  Fruits,"  seventh  edition. 


BOSC 


I'KAU    GROWING    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


243 


consistently.     The  variety  is  recommended  for  more  general  planting 
in  the  state.      Its  season  is  rather  early,  being  off  the  market  about 


FIG.  13.     Leaf  of  Bosc. 


FIG.  14.     Bosc. 


November  1.  There  is  no  more  beautiful  sight  in  the  way  of  pears  than 
an  orchard  of  this  variety  in  full  bearing.  Blooms  a  few  days  later 
than  Bartlett. 

Boussock. 

Origin  Belgium.  Si/e  large.  Color  lemon  yellow  with  russet  spots. 
Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  shallow.  Stem  short  and 
stout.  Cavity  small  and  narrow.  Quality  good.  Grown  only  experi- 
mentally in  California  up  to  the  present  time.  Season  medium. 

Bretonneau. 

Origin  Belgium.  Size  medium  to  large.  Color  greenish  yellow  with 
deep  blush.  Shape  obovate  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  medium 
size.  Stem  heavy,  about  1  inch  long.  Cavity  absent.  Quality  poor. 
Grown  only  experimentally  and  because  of  its  poor  quality  it  is  not 
recommended  for  general  use.  Season  late  to  very  late. 


244 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


FIG.  15.     Leaf  of  Boussock. 


FIG.   16.     Boussock. 


Cardinal. 

Size  medium  to  large.  Shape  roundish  pyriform.  Color  greenish 
yellow  with  inconspicuous  brown  dots  and  light  russet.  Calyx  open  or 
partly  to  wholly  closed.  Basin  corrugated  and  fairly  large.  Stem 
very  stout  and  about  J  inch  long.  Cavity  inconspicuous.  Quality  very 
good.  Season  late  December.  A  promising  variety  as  grown  by  A.  L. 
Wisker. 

Clairgeau. 

Origin  France.  Size  large.  Color  yellow  until  ripe  when  a  large 
portion  is  often  a  beautiful  red,  making  the  fruit  very  attractive. 
Skin  rather  rough  and  splashed  with  russet.  Surface  covered  with 
conspicuous  russet  dots.  Shape  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  small 
and  shallow.  Stem  short,  f  inch  or  less  and  heavy,  with  fleshy  projec- 
tion at  base.  Cavity  absent.  Quality  medium  to  good.  The  texture 
is  coarse  and  the  flavor  sweet  and  good.  The  sale  of  this  variety  is 
very  largely  dependent  upon  its  looks.  It  is  a  good  keeper  but  is  best 
in  fall  or  early  winter.  Little  grown  in  California.  Trees  are  large 
and  thrifty.  The  leaf  characteristics  as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  while  some- 
what variable,  make  it  easily  identified.  Note  the  characteristic  short 
pointed  apex,  wide  middle  and  very  narrow  base  formed  by  abrupt 
angle.  Prolific.  Blooms  early  with  Howell  and  Forelle. 


PEAK    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


245 


FIG.  17.     Leaf  of  Cardinal. 


FIG.   18.     Cardinal. 


FIG.   19.     Leaf  of  Clairgeau. 


FIG.  20.     Clairgeau. 


246 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 
Clapp  Favorite. 


Origin  Massachusetts.  Size  large.  Color  pale  yellow,  slightly  russet, 
and  beautiful  blush.  Shape  slightly  obtuse  pyriform.  Surface  some- 
what uneven.  Skin  thickly  sprinkled  with  brown  dots.  Calyx  open  or 
partially  closed.  Basin  shallow  and  slightly  roughened.  Stem  heavy, 
1  inch  long  or  less.  Cavity  small.  Quality  good.  Flesh  is  fine 
grained,  white,  rich  and  sweet.  Season  medium  early,  last  of  July  and 
August.  Very  little  grown  in  California. 


FIG.   21.     Leaf  of  Clapp  Favorite. 


FIG.   22.     Clapp  F'avorite. 


Cornice. 

Origin  France.  Fruit  large.  Color  green  or  light  yellow  with  more 
or  less  russet,  sometimes  blushed  with  dull  red.  Surface  sprinkled  with 
light  brown  or  dark  green  dots.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform,  truncate. 
Calyx  closed  in  most  California  specimens  examined,  though  sometimes 
partially  or  wholly  open.  Basin  very  large,  deep,  rough  and  abrupt. 
Stem  short,  heavy,  about  j  inch.  Cavity  well  denned  but  shallow. 
Quality  very  good  to  best.  Flesh  medium  to  fine  grained,  juicy,  sweet, 
slightly  aromatic.  Season  late  fall.  Grown  locally  in  California.  A 
good  variety,  especially  under  Santa  Clara  Valley  conditions. 


I'KAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


247 


FIG.  23.     Leaf  of  Cornice. 


FIG.  24.     Cornice. 


Cook   (A.  J.). 

New  variety.  Shortly  after  coming  to  California  in  June,  1913,  the 
writer's  attention  was  called  to  a  graft  from  a  chance  seedling  pear  tree 
growing  in  the  orchard  of  County  Horticultural  Commissioner  J.  E. 
Hassler  of  Placerville.  From  Mr.  Hassler's  description  of  the  fruit,  it 
was  thought  that  the  variety  might  be  worth  propagating.  During  each 
season  since  that  time  specimens  of  the  pears  have  been  received, 
through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Hassler,  and  the  tree  with  its  load  of  fruit 
has  been  seen.  The  quality  being  good  and  other  characteristics 
desirable,  the  variety,  which  at  present  is  being  propagated  by  A.  L. 
Wisker  of  Grass  Valley,  is  recommended  for  trial  in  the  different  pear- 
growing  sections  of  the  state.  In  the  foothill  region  of  the  Sierras, 
judging  from  the  hardiness  and  steady,  heavy  bearing  characteristics 
of  the  tree,  it  is  a  promising  variety  for  early  winter  use.  In  cold 
storage  it  will  keep  for  the  holiday  season. 

ORIGIN. 

The  variety  originated  on  a  place  adjoining  the  Hassler  ranch.  The 
original  tree  is  still  standing  and  on  October  19  of  last  year  it  was 
observed  by  the  writer.  It  is  growing  on  low,  wet  land,  close  to  a 
little  stream,  among  willows  and  other  brush.  The  leaves  are  very 
small  and  the  branches  scraggy  because  of  the  unfavorable  conditions. 


248  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

Each  season  it  bears  some  fruit.  Scions  were  taken  from  this  tree  by 
Mr.  Hassler  about  thirteen  years  ago,  and  grafted  into  a  Bartlett  in  the 
orchard.  The  grafted  tree,  therefore,  has  been  growing  under  identical 
conditions  that  surround  the  other  trees  in  his  orchard. 

HABITS   OF   GROWTH. 

In  habits  of  growth,  color  of  wood  and  general  appearance  this  tree 
resembles  Bartlett  very  closely  and  at  a  distance  of  a  few  yards  it 
would  be  mistaken  for  this  variety.  A  closer  examination  shows  that 
the  branches  are  more  slender  and  whiplike  and  inclined  to  be  crooked 
like  "Winter  Nelis.  Though  younger  than  the  Bartlett  trees,  the 
A.  J.  Cook  is  much  larger  than  the  average  sized  Bartlett  in  the  orchard. 
The  leaf  characteristics  are  quite  different,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  leaf  in  Fig.  10  with  that  in  Fig.  28. 

BLOOMING   CHARACTERISTICS. 

One  thing  that  commends  it  strongly  for  sections  of  higher  elevations 
is  its  delayed  blooming  habit,  which  will  enable  it  to  escape  injury  from 
late  frosts  that  might  ruin  the  Bartlett  crop.  Fig.  25  is  from  a  picture 


FIG.  25.     Bartlett  tree  on  left,  A.  J.  Cook  (new  variety)  on  right,  illustrating 
the  late  blooming  habit  of  the  latter  variety. 

taken  on  April  9,  1915.  The  tree  on  the  left  is  a  Bartlett  which  at  the 
time  was  in  full  bloom.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  A.  J.  Cook  has  not 
begun  to  show  any  blossom.  The  blooming  time  is  from  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  later  than  that  of  the  Bartlett. 

BEARING  HABITS. 

Mr.  Hassler  states  that  the  tree  has  been  a  regular  and  consistent 
bearer,  averaging  fully  as  good,  if  not  better  than  Bartletts  growing 
under  the  same  conditions  in  the  same  orchard.  In  1916,  it  produced 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


240 


FIG.  26.     Heavy  load  of  fruit  on  A.  J.  Cook  (new  variety)  in  1916. 
Photo  by  J.  E.  Hassler. 

approximately  400  pounds  of  fruit  and  again  in  1917  about  the  same 
amount.  Fig.  26  shows  the  large  crop  of  1916.  The  heavily  laden 
branches  had  to  be  propped  and  testify  to  the  f ruitfulness  of  the  variety. 

NAME. 

The  name  A.  J.  Cook  was  given  to  this  new  pear  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Wisker 
at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Hassler,  a  firm  friend  of  the  late  State  Commis- 
sioner of  Horticulture,  who  frequently  visited  the  beautiful  Hassler 
ranch,  and  who  took  a  keen  interest  in  the  horticultural  development 
of  the  place.  Mr.  Wisker  was  the  first  man  to  propagate  this  variety, 
and  in  fact  as  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  is  the  only  one  in  California 
at  the  present  time  who  has  the  trees  growing  in  his  nursery.  The 
description  was  published  in  a  price  list  of  the  Loma  Rica  Nurseries 
in  1916. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   FRUIT. 

Size  medium  to  large;  surface  somewhat  warty  or  irregular.  Color 
yellow  like  Bartlett,  often  with  beautiful  red  blush.  Skin  smooth 
and  shiny,  with  little  russet.  Shape  obtuse,  pyriform,  variable.  Some 
specimens  are  shaped  almost  exactly  like  Bartlett,  others  resemble 
Winter  Nelis.  There  is  a  characteristic  fleshy  projection,  frequently 
covering  the  cavity,  the  stem  being  attached  at  right  angles  as  in  Fig.  30. 


250 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


The  Winter  Nelis  aud  Bartlett  types  are  shown  respectively  in  Figs, 
29  &  31.  Calyx,  like  .Bartlett  usually  open  but  sometimes  nearly 
closed.  Basin  small  to  medium  sized  and  shallow,  more  or  less  corru- 
gated. Stem  short,  ^  inch  to  inch.  Cavity  irregular,  frequently 
entirely  eliminated  by  fleshy  projection.  Quality  medium  to  good. 
The  texture  is  rather  coarse,  nut  the  flavor  sweet  and  pleasant.  Appar- 
ently somewhat  subject  to  core  rot. 


FIG.  2' 


View    of    A. 


J.     Cook     (new    variety),     illustrating    the    Bartlett 
characteristics  of  growth. 


Dana's   Hovey. 

Origin  Massachusetts.  Size  small  to  medium.  Color  pale  yellow, 
considerable  russet.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform,  regular.  Skin  smooth 
and  covered  with  conspicuous  gray  dots.  Calyx  open.  Basin  wide, 
shallow,  sometimes  inconspicuous.  Stem  heavy,  1  inch  or  less  in  length. 
Cavity  slight,  abrupt.  Quality  very  good  to  best,  juicy,  sweet,  melting, 
aromatic.  Season  October  to  January. 

Downing  places  this  pear  in  a  class  with  Seckel  in  regard  to  its 
quality.  It  does  well  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras  of  California. 
Some  very  select  fruit  has  been  seen  from  Nevada  County.  Its  small 
size  is  against  its  commercial  use  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  a  splendid 
variety  for  small  home  plantings. 

32 


FIG.   29.     A.  J.  Cook   (new  variety),  shaped 
somewhat  like  Winter  Nelis. 


FIG.   28.     Leaf  of  A.  J.  Cook 
(new  variety). 


252 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Dearborn's  Seedling    (Massachusetts). 

Young  shoots  long,  reddish  brown ;  fruit  under  medium  size.  Round- 
ish pyriform.  Skin  smooth,  clear  light  yellow,  with  few  minute  dots. 
Stalk  slender,  set  with  very  little  depression.  Calyx  spreading  in 
shallow  basin.  Flesh  white,  very  juicy,  melting,  sprightly.  (Descrip- 
tion by  Wickson.)* 


FIG.  32.    Leaf  of  Dana's  Hovey. 


FIG.  33.    Dana's  Hovey. 


Diel. 

Origin  Belgium.  Size  large.  Color  yellow  with  slight  russet.  Skin 
covered  with  medium  sized  russet  dots  which  are  very  abundant. 
Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  closed.  Basin  small,  somewhat  cor- 
rugated and  irregular.  Stem  heavy,  about  1  inch  long.  Cavity  rather 
uneven.  Quality  medium.  Little  grown  in  California.  Season  Sep- 
tember to  November  or  later. 


Dix. 

The  original  tree  stands  in  the  garden  of  Madam  Dix,  Boston.  It 
bore  for  the  first  time  in  1826.  .  The  Dix  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  pear 
trees,  but  the  tree  does  not  come  into  bearing  until  it  has  attained 
considerable  size.  The  young  branches  are  dull  olive  yellow  brown, 
upright  and  slender.  Fruit  large,  oblong,  or  long  pyriform.  Skin 
roughish,  fine  deep  yellow  at  maturity,  marked  with  distinct  russet 
dots,  and  sprinkled  with  russet  around  the  stalk.  Calyx  small  for  so 
large  a  fruit.  Basin  narrow,  and  scarcely  at  all  sunk.  Stalk  rather 
stout,  short,  thicker  at  each  end,  set  rather  obliquely,  but  with  little  or 
no  depression.  Flesh  not  very  fine  grained,  but  juicy,  rich,  sugary, 


"California  Fruits,"  seventh  edition. 


PEAR   GROWING    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


253 


FIG.  36.    Leaf  of  Dix. 


F'IG.   37.     Dix. 


254 


PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


melting  and  delicious,  with  a  slight  perfume.  Very  good  to  best.* 
From  what  is  known  of  this  variety  in  California  it  can  not  be  rated 
higher  than  medium  quality.  Season  October  and  November. 

Easter   Beurre. 

Origin  Belgium.  Size  large.  Color  green  or  unevenly  colored  lemon 
yellow ;  .brown  russet.  Surface  covered  with  light  green  or  brown  dots 
which  are  very  conspicuous  until  fruit  colors,  when  they  become  incon- 
spicuous or  obsolete.  Shape  roundish  obovate.  Calyx  closed.  Basin 
wide  and  shallow,  very  irregular  and  corrugated.  Stem  short  and 


FIG.  38.    Leaf  of  Easter  Beurre. 


FIG.  39.     Easter  Beurre. 


heavy.  Cavity  well  denned,  abrupt.  Quality  medium  to  good.  Highly 
esteemed  for  baking.  It  is  rather  coarse  and  does  not  compare  favor- 
ably with  Winter  Nelis,  which  is  in  season  at  the  same  time  or  up  to 
January  1  or  later.  The  trees  of  this  variety  attain  a  great  size.  Some 
orchardists  have  grafted  them  over  to  Bartlett.  A  splendid  union 
results  from  such  grafts. 

^t  Sr*    " 

Flemish. 

Origin  Belgium.  Size  large.  Color  yellow  with  blush  like  Bartlett, 
slight  russet.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  small  and 
round.  Stem  1  to  1J  inches  long.  Cavity  well  denned,  round  and  very 


*Ffom  Downing's  "Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America." 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


255 


narrow.  Quality  good.  Rather  coarse  grained.  Flesh  yellow,  juicy 
and  sweet.  Season  early,  September  and  October.  A  fairly  good  early 
fall  variety  but  little  grown  in  the  state. 


FIG.   40.     Leaf  of  Flemish. 


FIG.  41.     Flemish. 


Forelle. 

Origin  Germany.  Size  medium  to  large.  Color,  light  yellow  with 
beautiful  red  cheeks.  Surface  covered  with  large,  very  conspicuous 
brownish  dots,  giving  it  a  speckled  appearance,  from  which  it  derives 
its  name  of  "trout"  pear.  Shape  variable,  sometimes  very  long  oval 
pyriform,  at  other  times  obovate  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin 
small,  rather  abrupt  and  regular.  Stem  short  and  somewhat  slender. 
Cavity  uneven,  practically  absent.  Quality  medium  to  good. 

This  variety  is  grown  commercially  only  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley 
of  California.  The  trees  do  well  under  the  conditions  of  that  section. 
The  appearance  is  very  characteristic  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  foliage 
resembles  that  of  the  apple.  The  wood  is  reddish  brown  in  color  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Rome  Beauty  apple.  The  extreme  beauty  of  well- 
grown  fruit  has  a  tendency  to  overcome  objectionable  features  and 
enhance  its  sale  in  the  markets.  It  blooms  early  and  is  in  season  about 


37 


256 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


October  to  January.    According  to  Reimer1  the  Forelle  is  more  subject 
to  blight  than  any  other  variety  with  which  he  has  experimented. 


FIG.   42.     Leaf  of  Forelle. 


FIG.   43.     Forelle. 


Gaillard. 

Size  medium  to  large.  Color  yellow.  Skin  very  smooth  with  light 
russet.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  russeted,  narrow, 
deep,  regular.  Stem  short  and  heavy,  J  inch  or  less,  obliquely  inserted  in 
lipped  cavity.  Quality  medium  to  good.  Flesh  somewhat  coarse,  juicy, 
sweet;  lacks  richness  and  fragrance.  Ripe  at  Grass  Valley  early  in 
November.  Mr.  Wisker,  who  aided  in  the  description  of  this  pear, 
states  that  "it  is  almost  an  exact  duplicate  of  Anjou,  except  that  the 
basin  is  deep,  whereas  in  Anjou  it  is  very  shallow."  He  reports  it  to 
be  wonderfully  productive  in  his  orchard  at  Grass  Valley  but  does  not 
recommend  its  general  use  as  there  are  other  better  pears  that  ripen 
about  the  same  time. 

Giffard.  . 

Origin  France.  Fruit  medium  size,  pyriform,  tapering  to  the  stem, 
which  is  rather  long;  skin  greenish  yellow,  marbled  with  red  on 
exposed  side.  Calyx  closed.  Flesh  white,  melting,  juicy,  vinous  flavor. 
Very  good.  Ripens  in  August.  Should  be  gathered  before  fully  ripe. 
(Description  by  Brackett.)2  Rated  only  medium  quality  in  California. 
Ripens  with  Lawson,  which  it  much  excels  in  quality. 


1  "Pear  Blight  Resistance  in  Trees  and  Stocks."     Address  before  the  Pacific  Coast 
Association  of  Nurserymen  at  Medford,  Oregon. 

2  "The  Pear  and  How  to  Grow  It."     Farmers  Bulletin   482,   U.   S.   Department  of 
Agriculture. 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


257 


FIG.  46.    Leaf  of 
Glout.  Morceau. 


FIG.   47.     Glout  Morceau. 


258 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Glout   Morceau. 

Origin  Belgium.  Size  large.  Color  green  or  light  yellow.  Skin 
smooth  with  small  green  dots.  Shape  ovate,  obtuse  pyrif orm,  not  unlike 
Keiffer.  Calyx  open.  Basin  deep  and  roughened.  Stem  medium, 
1  inch  or  more.  Cavity  regular,  small  and  abrupt.  Quality  medium. 
A  popular  variety  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  where  it  has  been  grown 
for  years.  The  season  is  early  winter  (November-December).  Trees 
are  very  vigorous,  spreading  and  fairly  productive. 


FIG.   48.     Glout  Morceau  pear  tree  in  a  Santa  Clara  Valley  orchard,  showing 
the  vigorous  spreading  type  of  growth. 


Hardy  (Beurre   Hardy). 

Origin  France.  Size  large.  Color  green  or  yellow,  covered  with 
light  brown  russet.  Shape  oblong  or  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open. 
Basin  smooth,  wide  and  regular.  Stem  short  and  heavy,  1  inch  or  less. 
Cavity  small  or  absent.  Stem  inserted  on  one  side.  Quality  good  to 
very  good.  Texture  fine.  Taste  sweet,  pleasant;  very  juicy  and  aro- 
matic. This  variety  is  in  season  a  little  after  Bartlett.  The  trees  are 
very  large  and  bear  heavily.  They  are  less  susceptible  to  blight  than 
Bartlett.  The  latter  variety  does  well  when  top  worked  on  Hardy  stock. 
It  is  a  somewhat  common  variety  in  the  state  but  there  are  no  large 
planting's  and  in  many  cases  this  variety  has  been  worked  over  to  Bart- 
lett, which  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  bet'ter  variety.  Hardy  is  a 
good  shipping  pear,  being  popular  for  export  on  account  of  its  fine 
carrying  and  eating  qualities,  and  for  local  consumption  it  also  has  .a 
valuable  place  in  the  orchard. 


40 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


259 


FIG.  51.     Large  Hardy  tree,  illustrating  the  characteristics  of  growth. 

41 


260 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 
Hassler   (new  variety). 


Origin  Placerville,  California.  Size  large.  Color  greenish  yellow 
with  russet  dots.  Skin  very  smooth  and  fine,  a  perfect-looking  pear. 
Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  large,  deep,  irregular. 
Stem  heavy,  medium  length  or  short.  Cavity  quite  deep,  with  stem 
inserted  at  angle  on  one  side.  Texture,  fine  grained.  Quality  very 
good.  Juicy,  very  buttery,  sweet,  pleasant.  Season  very  late.  Ripe 
February  23. 


FIG.   52.     Leaf  of  Hassler  (new  variety). 


FIG.   53.      Hassler  (new  variety). 


Like  the  A.  J.  Cook,  this  variety  originated  as  a  chance  seedling  on 
the  place  of  J.  E.  Hassler  at  Placerville.  Some  grafts  were  inserted 
into  a  Rossney  tree  in  the  orchard  and  this  year  for  the  first  time  bore 
a  few  fruits,  most  of  which  Mr.  Hassler  picked  too  early  for  proper 
ripening.  On  February  23,  1918,  the  writer  received  a  fine  sample  of 
this  pear  in  prime  condition.  Nothing  can  be  said  as  yet  about  its 
bearing  characteristics.  Its  apparently  very  good  quality  and  extremely 
late  ripening  make  it  promising  for  late  winter  or  early  spring  use. 


42 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


261 


Hey  st. 

Origin  France.  Size  medium  to  large.  Color  yellow  with  consider- 
able russet.  Shape  oblong,  obovate,  pyriform.  Dots  gray,  incon- 
spicuous and  abundant.  Calyx  closed.  Basin  small,  irregular,  variable. 
Stem  heavy,  about  1]  inches  long.  Cavity  small.  Quality  medium. 
Little  grown  in  state.  Season  late. 


FIG.  54.    Leaf  of  Heyst. 


FIG.   55.     Heyst. 


Howell. 

Origin  Connecticut.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  very  smooth,  glossy, 
symmetrical  and  beautiful.  Color  green  or  light  yellow.  Surface 
covered  with  green,  rather  inconspicuous  dots.  Shape  roundish, 
pyriform.  Calyx  open  or  partly  closed.  Basin  corrugated,  wide  and 
fairly  deep.  Stem  1J  inches  or  over.  Cavity  absent,  in  most  cases 
giving  way  to  a  more  or  less  wrinkled  fleshy  condition  at  base  of  stem. 
Quality  good  to  very  good.  Flesh  whitish,  fine  grained,  juicy  and 


262 


PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


buttery.  Season  September  to  November  1.  It  is  prolific,  blooms  early 
and  blights  badly.  Grown  most  at  present  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley, 
where  it  has  done  well. 


FIG.   56.     Leaf  of  Howell. 


FIG.   57.     Howell. 


41 


PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 
Idaho. 


263 


Origin  Idaho.  Size  largo.  Color  yellow  with  russet  dots.  Shape 
globular  like  apple.  Surface  rough.  Galyx  closed.  Basin  deep, 
slightly  corrugated.  Stem  short,  about  f  inch.  Cavity  narrow,  rather 
deep.  Quality  medium  to  good.  Little  grown  in  the  state. 


FIG.  58.  Leaf  of  Idaho. 


FIG.  59.  Idaho. 


Joan  of  Arc. 

Origin  France.  Size  medium  to  large.  Color  lemon  yellow  with 
thinly  netted  russet  which  becomes  heavy  at  calyx.  Skin  smooth  and 
regular.  Shape  oblong  pyriform  to  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  closed. 
Basin  broad,  deep,  regular.  Stem  short  and  heavy,  about  |  inch, 
obliquely  inserted  in  fairly  deep  regular  cavity.  Quality  very  good. 
Flesh  medium  fine  grained,  melting,  juicy;  flavor  rich,  sweet,  musky, 


264 


PEAR    GROWING    IN.  CALIFORNIA. 


between  Bartlett  and  Dana's  Hovey.  Ripe  November  18.  (Description 
by  A.  L.  Wisker.)  This  variety  is  very  promising  and  is  recommended 
for  trial  in  the  different  pear-growing  districts  of  the  state. 


FIG.   60.     Leaf  of  Joan  of  Arc. 


FIG.   61.     Joan  of  Arc. 


Kieffer. 

Origin  Pennsylvania.  A  chance  seedling,  undoubtedly  a  cross 
between  the  Bartlett  and  the  Chinese  Sand  Pear.  Size  medium  to 
large.  Color  yellow,  often  with  deep  blush.  Surface  rather  rough 
and  covered  with  brown  dots.  Shape  ovate  pyrif  orm,  angular.  Tapers 
abruptly  and  similarly  toward  stem  and  calyx.  Calyx  open  or  partly 
closed.  Basin  narrow  and  slightly  corrugated.  Stem  strong  and 
about  1  inch  in  length.  Cavity  abrupt  and  rather  shallow.  The 
Kieffer  is  not  grown  extensively  in  California.  Quality  poor.  It  is 
very  coarse  grained,  being  suitable  mostly  for  canning  purposes.  In 
the  south  and  parts  of  the  east  it  is  a  popular  variety  because  of  its 
splendid  adaptation  to  the  conditions  that  exist  where  it  is  grown.  The 
trees  are  large  and  thrifty.  They  are  much  more  resistant  to  blight 
than  the  Bartlett  but  under  certain  conditions  contract  the  disease 
readily.  Because  of  their  resistance  to  this  disease,  the  use  of  trees 


16 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


265 


for  top  working  to  Bartlett  was  at  one  time  recommended.  The 
evidence  points  toward  a  satisfactory  union  and  a  tree  with  a  Kieffer 
trunk  and  Bartlett  top  would  possess  at  least  a  slight  advantage  in 
relation  to  blight  resistance  over  a  tree  entirely  Bartlett.  It  ripens 
late  and  is  in  season  during  the  early  winter  months  (November- 
December)  . 


FIG.   62.     Leaf  of  Kieffer. 


FIG.   63.     Kieffer. 


Lawrence. 

Origin  New  York.  Size  small  to  medium.  Color  lemon  yellow 
splashed  with  russet  and  covered  with  numerous  green  dots.  Shape 
obovate  pyriform.  Calyx  open  or  partly  closed.  Basin  wide  and 
shallow,  uneven.  Stem  medium  size  J  inch  long.  Cavity  well 
defined,  irregular,  russeted.  Quality  good  to  very  good.  Flesh  whitish, 
juicy,  buttery  and  sweet.  Season  about  November  and  December. 


47 


266 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


One  of  the  best  small  varieties.     Recommended  for  limited  planting 
only. 


FIG.  64.    Leaf  of  Lawrence. 


FIG.   65.      Lawrence. 


Lawson   (Comet). 

Origin  New  York.  Size  medium  to  large.  Color  light  yellow  often 
blushed  with  crimson.  Skin  smooth  and  covered  with  large,  green, 
conspicuous  dots.  .Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open  or  closed. 
Basin  obtuse,  shallow.  Stem  short,  f  inch  to  1J  inch,  inserted  obliquely 
and  emanating  from  a  fleshy  projection.  Cavity  absent.  Quality  poor 
to  medium. 

This  variety  does  well  along  the  Sacramento  River,  where  it  is  the 
first  pear  to  be  shipped  during  the  season.  Its  extreme  earliness  makes 
it  popular  for  limited  plantings  to  supply  the  early  market.  The 
writer  picked  some  specimens  from  an  orchard  near  Courtland,  on 
July  12  last  season.  They  were  overripe,  mealy,  lacking  in  juice  and 
scarcely  fit  to  eat,  and  all  pears  of  this  variety  that  were  left  were 
simply  the  few  overlooked  in  picking,  or  which  were  too  small  at  the 
time  of  picking. 

Le  Conte. 

Origin  New  York.  Size  medium.  Color  yellow,  with  blush.  Skin 
rough  with  abundant  large,  deep  green  dots.  Shape  angular  oval 
pyriform,  resembles  Kieffer.  Calyx  closed  or  partly  open.  Basin 
small,  smooth.  Stem  1}  inch  or  less,  heavy.  Cavity  small.  Quality 
poor,  like  Kieffer.  This  variety  is  little  grown  in  the  state,  and  like 
Kieffer  is  not  recommended  for  sections  where  first-class  varieties  do 
well. 

48 


PEAR   GROWING    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


267 


FIG.   67.     Lawson. 


FIG.  66.     Leaf  of  Lawson. 


FIG.  68.     Leaf  of  Le  Conte. 
4—37406 


FIG.  69.     Le  Conte. 


268 


FIG.  70.     Le  Lectier. 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

Le  Lectier. 

Origin  France.  Size  medium.  Color 
yellow,  slight  russet.  Dots  green,  incon- 
spicuous. Shape  oblong  pyriform.  Calyx 
closed.  Basin  small,  rather  wide,  corru- 
gated. Stem  fleshy,  1  inch  to  1J  inch. 
Cavity  absent.  Quality  good.  Grown  only 
experimentally.  Season  medium. 

Louise  (Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey). 

Size  large.  Color  green.  The 
surface  of  the  skin  is  covered  abun- 
dantly with  conspicuous  large  deep 
green  dots.  Shape  oblong  pyri- 
form. Calyx  open.  Basin  small, 
shallow  and  corrugated.  Stem  light, 
1  inch  to  1£  inch  long,  inserted 
obliquely.  Cavity  absent.  Quality 
good.  An  early  fall  variety  little 
grown  in  the  state.  Some  good 
specimens  have  been  seen  in  the 
Santa  Clara  Valley.  The  trees  are 
large  and  said  to  be  productive.  It 
is  claimed  that  this  variety  is  better 
when  grown  as  a  dwarf  than  when 
on  standard  stock. 


FIG.  71.     Leaf  of  Louise. 


FIG. 


Louise. 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 
Lucrative    (Belle  Lucrative). 


269 


Origin  Flemish.  ,  Medium  size,  variable  in  form  from  globular  to 
obtuse  pyriform.  Stalk  1]  inch  long,  often  fleshy,  oblique.  Cavity 
small  and  narrow.  Calyx  short,  open.  Flesh  juicy,  melting,  rich, 
sugary,  delicious.  Season  last  of  September.  (Description  by  Brack- 
ett.)*  Quality  medium  in  California. 

Madeleine  Early  (French). 

Small,  obovate  pyriform,  stalk  long  and  slender,  set  on  the  side  of 
a  small  swelling  pale  yellowish  green,  rarely  brownish  blush;  calyx 
small,  in  shallow  furrowed  basin ;  flesh  white,  juicy,  delicate.  (Descrip- 
tion by  Wickson.)*  Quality  good  in  California. 

Marguerite   Marillat. 

Size  very  large.  Color  yellow,  blushed.  Stem  short,  stout,  usually 
inserted  almost  at  a  right  angle.  This  trait  is  apparently  a  character- 


FIG.   73.     Marguerite  Marillat. 


istic  of  the  variety.  Flesh  fine  grained,  buttery,  melting,  rich,  juicy, 
sweet,  somewhat  like  Bartlett,  which  it  equals  in  quality.  Ripe 
September  20.  (Description  by  A.  L.  Wisker.) 


*  "The  Pear  and  How  to  Grow  It." 
Agriculture. 

*"California  Fruits,"  seventh  edition. 


Farmers'  Bulletin  482,  U.  S.  Department  of 


270  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Mount  Vernon. 

Origin  Massachusetts.  Size  small.  Color  green  or  light  yellow  with 
russet.  Shape  round,  obtuse.  Skin  shows  many  green  but  very  incon- 
spicuous dots.  Calyx  open.  Basin  quite  wide  and  shallow.  Stem 
short,  about  f  inch  to  slightly  more,  inserted  on  one  side.  Cavity 
small.  Quality  good  to  very  good.  From  what  little  is  known  of  this 
variety  in  California  one  would  be  led  to  recommend  its  planting  experi- 
mentally at  least.  In  season  in  early  winter. 


FIG.  74.     Leaf  of 
Mount  Vernon.  FIG.   75.     Mount  Vernon. 

Onondaga    (Connecticut). 

Large,  obtuse,  oval  pyriform,  neck  very  short  and  obtuse,  body  large 
and  tapering  to  obtuse  apex.  Flesh  melting,  sprightly,  vinous.  A 
vigorous,  upright  grower,  healthy;  yellow  shoots;  sells  well  in  distant 
markets.  (Description  by  Wickson.)*  Apparently  of  no  value  in 
California. 

*•     » -   f  -^ 

P.  Barry. 

Origin  California.  Size  large.  Color  green  heavily  covered  with 
russet.  Skin  is  rough  and  conspicuously  marked  with  large  brown  dots. 
Shape  ovate  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  very  small,  practically 
absent.  Stem  about  1  inch  long,  heavy.  Cavity  small.  Quality 
medium.  The  greatest  objection  to  this  variety  is  its  susceptibility  to 
blight.  It  is  grown  to  a  small  extent  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  where 
it  was  originated  by  B.  S.  Fox,  and  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras. 
Keeping  qualities  are  good.  In  season  about  November  and  December, 
or  later  from  storage. 

*  "California  Fruits,"  seventh  edition. 


62 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


271 


FIG.  76.    Leaf  of  Onondaga. 


FIG.  77.     Onondaga. 


FIG.  78.     Leaf  of  P.  Barry.  FIG.  79.     P.  Barry. 

63 


272 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Philopena. 

Origin  Indiana.  Size  small  to  medium.  Color  yellow  with,  purple 
blush.  Shape  oblong  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  small,  shallow. 
Stem  short.  Cavity  small  or  absent.  Quality  medium.  Season  about 
three  or  four  weeks  after  Bartlett. 

Pound. 

Origin  unknown.  Size  very  large.  Color  yellow  with  considerable 
russet.  Skin  covered  with  an  abundance  of  small  variable  green  dots. 
Shape  pyriform,  tapering  gradually  to  a  point  at  the  base  of  stalk. 
Calyx  closed.  Basin  small,  irregular,  very  corrugated.  Stem  heavy, 
about  1^  inch  long.  Quality  poor.  The  trees  are  large  and  vigorous, 
the  fruit  being  grown  mostly  for  its  size.  Fairly  good  for  cooking. 
Specimens  bought  in  San  Francisco  on  December  27,  1916,  were  non- 
edible.  They  were  selling  at  that  time  for  from  75  cents  to  $1.25  per 
box. 

Rossney. 

Origin  Utah.  Size  large.  Color  yellow  with  red  blush.  Shape 
obovate  pyriform,  tapers  quickly  to  narrow  point.  Calyx  open.  .Basin 
small.  Stem  heavy,  medium  length.  Cavity  small  or  absent.  Quality 
good  to  very  good.  This  variety  is  little  grown  in  the  state.  It  is  said 
by  Mr.  J.  E.  Hassler  of  Placerville  to  be  an  excellent  variety  for  drying 
under  the  conditions  existing  in  El  Dorado  County. 


FIG.  80.     Leaf  of  Rossney. 


FIG.   81.     Rossney. 


54 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


273 


Seckel. 

Origin  Pennsylvania.  Size  small.  Color  reddish  brown  with  russet 
and  red  cheek.  Shape  obovate.  Calyx  open.  Basin  small  and  shallow. 
Stem  short  and  heavy,  about  f  inch.  Cavity  small.  Quality  best. 
Flesh  fine  grained,  sweet  and  buttery.  Downing  in  his  "Fruits  and 
Fruit  Trees  of  America"  states:  "We  do  not  hesitate  to  pronounce 
this  American  pear  the  richest  and  most  exquisitely  flavored  variety 
known.  In  its  highly  concentrated,  spicy  and  honeyed  flavor  it  is  not 
surpassed,  nor  indeed  equaled,  by  any  European  variety."  When 
shipped  from  Sacramento  Valley  usually  sells  well — $1.75  to  $2.00  per 
-£  box  (25  pounds). 

The  tree  is  very  hardy  and  a  heavy  bearer  of  clustered  fruits.  It  is 
not  grown  in  large  commercial  plantings  in  this  state  because  of  its 
small  size,  and  early  ripening  characteristics.  It  is  an  early  fall  pear 
and  every  orchardist  should  have  at  least  one  tree  in  his  home  orchard. 


FIG.   82.     Leaf  of  Seckel. 


FIG.  83.     Seckel. 


Sheldon. 

• 

Origin  New  York.  Medium  or  large,  roundish,  obtuse  obovate ;  skin 
greenish  yellow,  covered  with  thin  russet,  a  little  brownish  crimson 
with  russet  dots  on  exposed  side ;  stalk  short,  stout ;  cavity  deep ;  calyx 
open.  Flesh  whitish,  sweet,  very  juicy,  melting,  vinous,  texture  rather 
coarse ;  very  good ;  October.  Tree  vigorous ;  it  requires  double  working 
on  quince.  (Description  by  Brackett.)1 


1  "The  Pear  and  How  to  Grow  It.' 
Agriculture. 


Farmers'   Bulletin   482.  U.   S.   Department  of 


66 


274 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 
Souvenir. 


Origin  France.  Size  large.  Color  handsome  yellow  with  red  blush. 
Skin  covered  with  light  green  dots  with  yellow  center.  Shape,  obtuse 
pyriform.  Calyx  closed.  Basin  deep  and  irregular.  Stem  short, 
heavy,  f  inch  more  or  less.  Cavity  small.  Quality  poor.  Season 
medium  early. 


FIG.   84.     Leaf  of  Souvenir. 


FIG.   86.     Superfm. 


2  "Nomenclature  of  the  Pear.' 


FIG.   85.      Souvenir. 
Superfin. 

Origin  France.  Size  medium. 
Color  yellow  with  cinnamon  russet. 
Shape  round  pyriform.  Texture, 
juicy,  buttery,  melting.  Flavor 
vinous,  subacid.  Quality  good  to 
very  good.  Season  medium.  (Des- 
cription by  Ragah.)2 

Touraine.  . 

Size  medium.  Color  greenish 
yellow,  no  blush.  Shape  oblong 
pyriform.  Calyx  partly  closed. 
Basin  medium.  Stem  long,  1 J  inch 
or  more,  emanates  from  one  side. 
Cavity  small.  Quality  medium. 
Season  late. 


Bulletin  126,   Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 
56 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


275 


Tyson. 

Origin,  Pennsylvania.  Medium  or  below  in  size.  Conic  pyriform. 
Skin  clear  deep  yellow,  with  a  fine  crimson  cheek  and  numerous  brown 
dots.  Stem  long  and  curved,  inserted  with  a  fleshy  ring  or  lip.  Calyx 
closed.  Flesh  juicy,  very  sweet,  melting,  aromatic.  Late  summer. 
Tree  vigorous,  upright  grower,  very  productive.  An  excellent  variety 
both  in  tree  and  fruit.  (Description  by  Brackett.)1  Rated  as  medium 
quality  in  California. 

Urbaniste. 

Origin  Belgium.  Size  medium  to  large.  Color  yellow,  russet. 
Shape  obovate  pyriform.  Texture  buttery,  melting,  juicy.  Flavor 
perfumed.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Season  medium  late.  (De- 
scription by  Ragan.)2  Rated  as  medium  quality  in  California. 

Vanille. 

Size  small.  Color  yellow  with  beautiful  blush  which  covers  more 
than  half  of  the  pear.  Shape  roundish,  obtuse  obovate.  Calyx 
deciduous.  Basin  wide  and  quite  large.  Stem  J  inch  long  or  less. 
Cavity  very  small.  Quality  medium.  Season  late. 

Vicar  (Vicar  of  Wakefield). 

Origin  France.  Size  large.  Color  green  or  light  yellow  when 
thoroughly  ripe ;  very  light  red  blush.  Skin  smooth,  covered  with  an 


FIG.  88.     Vicar. 

1  "The  Pear  and  How  to  Grow  It."     Farmers'  Bulletin  482.  U.   S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

a  "Nomenclature  of  the  Pear."     Bulletin  126,   Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 

57 


276 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


abundance  of  small  green  or  brownish  dots.  Shape,  very  long  pyri- 
form.  Calyx  open.  Basin  wide  and  shallow.  Stem  light,  about  1£ 
inch  in  length,  fleshy  at  base,  emanates  from  one  side.  Cavity  small 
or  absent.  Quality  poor  to  medium.  The  trees  that  have  been 
observed  in  California  are  large  and  productive.  The  fruit  is  beautiful 
but  not  desirable  except  for  cooking  purposes.  A  winter  variety  that 
keeps  until  after  the  holiday  season. 


FIG.  89.     Leaf  of  Vienne. 


FIG.   90.     Vienne. 


Vienne. 

Origin  France.  Size  medium.  Color  green  or  light  yellow,  slight 
blush;  sprinkled  with  russet.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open. 
Basin  medium.  Stem  1^  inch  or  more.  Cavity  wide  and  very  shallow. 
Quality  medium  to  good. 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 
White   Doyenne. 


277 


Origin  France.  %  Size  medium.  Color  whitish  yellow  with  very  small 
brown  dots.  Shape  roundish  obovate.  Calyx  closed  or  partly  open, 
small,  set  in  shallow  basin.  Stem  -J  inch  to  1J  inch  long.  Cavity  small, 
round.  Quality  good.  Season  medium  early. 


FIG.  91.     Leaf  of  White 
Doyenne. 


FIG.  92.     White  Doyenne. 


Wilder  Early   (American). 


Size  small  to  medium.  Color  yellow  with  red  cheek.  Flavor  sweet 
and  good.  Recently  introduced  and  profitable  for  local  sale  in  San 
Diego  County.  Should  not  be  confused  with  Col.  Wilder,  a  California 
seedling  which  has  gone  out  of  use.  (Description  by  Wickson.)* 
This  variety  has  recently  become  quite  popular  for  planting  in  Solano 
and  Placer  counties.  It  ripens  early,  being  practically  off  the  market 
before  the  Bartlett  begins.  Quality  good. 

*  "California  Fruits,"  seventh  edition. 


278 


PEAE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


Winter  Bartlett. 

Origin  Oregon.  Size  large.  Color  light  yellow  like  Bartlett,  splashed 
with  russet.  Skin  contains  green  or  brownish  dots.  Surface  uneven. 
Shape  oblong  pyriform.  Quite  like  Bartlett.  Calyx  closed.  Basin 
small,  shallow  and  very  irregular.  Stem  heavy,  J  to  1^  inch  in  length. 
Cavity  small  and  often  one-sided.  Quality  medium.  Season  late. 

This  pear  has  been  planted  in  a  small  way  in  California.  In  the 
Imperial  Valley  it  has  been  grown  more  or  less  successfully  for  some 
years  and  is  the  best  variety  known  at  present  for  that  section.  For 
a  late  winter  pear  it  may  become  of  some  value  in  the  state.  At  present 
it  is  being  grown  north  of  Tehachapi  mostly  in  an  experimental  way. 


FIG.  93.    Leaf  of  Winter 
Bartlett. 


FIG.  94.     Winter  Bartlett. 


Winter  Nelis. 

This  variety  originated  in  Belgium.  Fruit  usually  medium  or  small 
in  size,  variable.  Color  green  or  light  yellow  when  ripe.  Skin  smooth, 
splashed  and  streaked  with  a  heavy  brown  russet.  Shape  roundish 
obovate.  Open  calyx  is  set  in  a  medium  sized,  regular  shaped  basin. 
Stem  rather  slender  and  the  average  length,  about  1-J  inch.  Cavity 
very  small.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  This  variety  ranks,  as  a  winter 
pear,  with  the  Seckel,  which  is  so  popular  in  the  fall.  Flesh  fine  grained, 
sweet,  juicy,  buttery,  and  pleasing  in  flavor.  There  is  practically  no 
aroma. 


fiO 


WINTER   NELIS 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


279 


The  trees  become  large  and  are  quite  hardy  although  blight  affects 
them  commonly.  The  twigs  are  brown  in  color  and  have  the  habit  of 
twisting  into  various  shapes.  They  have  the  tendency  to  grow  long  and 
slender.  From  the  standpoint  of  production  this  variety  is,  under  most 
conditions  favorable  to  pears,  all  that  could  be  desired.  Without 
thinning  and  proper  pruning  the  fruit  is  apt  to  be  small. 

In  California  there  is  no  better  pear  on  the  market,  during  the  holiday 
season,  than  the  Winter  Nelis.  On  December  27,  1916,  the  writer  made 
an  investigation  of  the  San  Francisco  markets  to  determine  what 
varieties  of  winter  pears  were  being  sold  during  the  holiday  season. 


FIG.   95.     Leaf  of  Winter  Nelis. 


FIG.  96.     Winter  Nelis. 


The  following  notation  was  made  on  that  date :  ' '  There  was  a  notice- 
able scarcity  of  all  varieties,  but  the  following  were  found  in  small 
numbers :  Anjou,  Winter  Nelis,  Easter  Beurre,  Pound,  Clairgeau,  Vicar 
of  Wakefield  and  Kieffer.  Winter  Nelis  were  selling  for  from  $2.00  to 
$3.00  per  box;  Clairgeau,  Easter  Beurre,  Kieffer  and  Pound  for  from 
75  cents  to  $1.25  per  box.  Three  pears  of  the  Pound  variety  were 
bought  from  a  fruit  vendor  who  has  a  stand  near  the  Ferry  Building, 
for  10  cents.  They  were  hard  and  nonedible.  Three  Anjou  pears  were 
bought  at  a  fruit  stand  in  the  Ferry  Building,  for  10  cents ;  these  were 
excellent  for  eating.  They  were  grown  in  Oregon."  Of  all  the 
varieties  seen  during  this  investigation  only  Winter  Nelis  and  Anjou 
were  worthy  of  the  name  pear.  There  should  be  a  good  winter  market 

61 


280 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


for  well-ripened  specimens  of  these  two  popular  varieties.  On  March  30, 
1918,  well-ripened  Winter  Nelis  in  prime  condition  were  bought  from 
a  fruit  dealer  in  Los  Angeles. 


FIG.   97.     Splendid  type  of  Winter  Nelis  tree  growing  in  Santa  Clara  Valley. 

Worcester. 

Origin  unknown.  Size  large.  Color  green,  covered  with  russet.  Dots 
large  brown,  obscured  by  russet.  Shape  obtuse  pyriform.  Calyx  open. 
Basin  small,  shallow,  irregular.  Stem  heavy,  1J  inch  or  more  long. 
Quality  poor.  Good  only  for  cooking.  Season  late.  Little  grown  in 
California.  Considered  desirable  for  culinary  purposes  in  the  London 
markets. 

Zoe. 

Origin  unknown.  Size  small  to  medium.  Color  light  yellow  with 
red  blush.  Shape  oblong  pyriform.  Calyx  open.  Basin  small.  Stem 
f  inch  to  1  inch  long.  Cavity  small.  Quality  medium.  Season  late. 

In  addition  to  the  list  of  varieties  described  there  are  a  number  that 
originated  in  California,  but  which  are  not  included  because  as  far  as 
could  be  determined  they  are  not  being  grown  to  any  extent  at  this  time, 
after  having  been  given  a  thorough  trial  in  years  gone  by.  Among 
these  are  Acme,  Bergamota,  Block,  Crocker  Bartlett  and  Napa, 

The  following  tables  are  designed  to  show,  in  the  case  of  the  first, 
the  quality  of  varieties  regardless  of  locality,  or  any  of  the  other 
factors  which  enter  into  commercial  pear  culture,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  second  the  adaptability  in  a  commercial  sense  to  the  pear  growing 
regions  of  the  state,  which  are  defined  at  the  close  of  the  Introductory 
Chapter. 

Necessarily  tables  of  this  nature  are  only  approximately  correct, 
and  it  is  not  expected  that  everyone  will  agree  in  the  data  which 
they  set  forth.  In  order  that  the  opinion  of  those  who  are  best  capable 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


281 


PIG.  98.     Leaf  of  Worcester. 


FIG.  99.     Worcester. 


of  judging  might  be  represented  the  tables  have  been  submitted  to 
a  number  of  pear  experts  for  criticisms  and  corrections.  Thus,  they 
do  not  represent  the  writer's  views  alone,  but  rather  the  composite 
view  of  those  who  had  a  part  in  their  preparation. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  the  quality  table  that  Bartlett  is  rated  only 
as  very  good.  Commercially  there  is  no  one  who  would  rate  it  lower 
than  best,  but  when  quality  alone  is  being  considered  there  are  few 
people  who  would  place  it  in  the  same  class  with  Seckel,  Bosc  and 
Cornice.  Because  of  its  commercial  importance  it  was  taken  as  a 
standard  by  which  to  judge  other  varieties  and  each  has  been  rated 
above  or  below  according  to  the  best  judgment  that  could  be  secured 
on  quality. 

It  will  also  be  noticed  in  the  table  that  certain  varieties  are  rated 
as  both  very  good  and  best,  or  good  and  very  good,  or  medium  and 
good;  for  example,  Cornice,  Rossney  and  Easter  Beurre.  This  simply 
means  that  under  certain  conditions  these  pears  are  rated  higher  in 
quality  than  under  other  conditions  and  may  vary  from  very  good 
to  best,  or  from  good  to  very  good,  or  from  medium  to  good. 

The  adaptability  table  was  even  more  difficult  to  prepare.  It  is  far 
from  being  complete  and  no  doubt  many  varieties  listed  will  do  well 
in  districts  from  which  they  have  not  been  reported.  Again,  in  the 
course  of  preparation  of  this  table  every  effort  was  made  to  secure 
reliable  data  and  it  will  at  least  serve  as  a  guide  in  the  selection  of 
such  varieties  as  are  at  present  known  to  be  adapted  to  the  several 
districts  of  the  state. 


282 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


TABLE    SHOWING    QUALITY    OF    VARIETIES. 


Best 

Very 
good 

Good 

Medium 

Poor 

Angers 

x 

Angrmlfimfi    (T>nphpss) 

x 

Anjmi 

X 

Bartlett 

X 

Bloodgood 

x 

Bordeaux 

x 

Bose 

x 

Boussock 

x 

Bretonneau                 - 

X 

Cardinal  (Georg  d'Ambois)    --                       _ 

x 

Olairgeau 

x 

x 

Clapp  Favorite 

x 

Cornice 

x 

x 

Cook  (A.  J.,  new  variety) 

x 

x 

Dana's   Hovey 

x 

Dearborn  Seedling 

x 

Diel  (Beurre  Diel) 

x 

Dix 

x 

Easter  Beurre 

x 

x 

February  Butter 

X 

Flemish  (Flemish  Beauty) 

x 

Forelle 

x 

X 

Gaillard 

x 

x 

Garber 

x 

Giflard 

x 

Glout  Morceau 

x 

Hardy  (Beurre  Hardy) 

x 

x 

Heyst   (Emile  de) 

x 

Howell 

x 

X 

Idaho 

x 

x 

Joan  of  Arc 

x 

Kieffer 

X 

Lawrence 

x 

x 

Lawson  (Comet) 

x 

x 

Le  Conte 

x 

Le  Lectier 

X 

Louise  Bonne 

X 

x 

x 

Marguerite  Marillat 

x 

x 

x 

Onondaga 

X 

P   Barry 

X 

Philopena 

X 

Pound 

X 

Rossney 

x 

X 

Seckel 

x 

Sheldon 

x 

X 

Superfln                                                             --    -  - 

X 

X 

x 

Tyson 

x 

Urbanist0 

X 

Vanille 

X 

Vicar  (Vicar  of  Wakefield) 

X 

X 

x 

X 

White  Doyenne                                      --       -       

x 

Wilder  Early 

X 

Winter  Bartlett 

X 

Winter  Nelis 

x 

x 

Worcester  (Black  Pear  of  W  ) 

X 

Zoe 

x 

PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


283 


Table  Showing  Adaptability  of  25   Leading   Varieties  of   Pears   in   the   Different 

Regions  of  the  State. 


Northern  California 
Coast  Region  

Central  California 
Coast  Region  

Southern  California 
Coast  Region  

Northern  and  Central 
California  Interior 
Valley  Region  

Southern  California 
Desert  Region  

Imperial  Valley 

Sierra  Nevada  Foot- 
hill and  Mountain 
Region  

Modoc-Inyo  Region  

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

**** 

t 

* 

** 

t 

**** 

t 

** 

t 

Bartlett                            '                          

* 

* 

* 

* 

**** 

* 

Bosc                           — 

* 

t 

*** 

t 

t 

* 

t 

*** 

«** 

f 

**** 

t 

t 

*** 

t 

** 

**** 

**** 

f 

f 

**» 

** 

Cornice                                   .-  

* 

t 

**•» 

t 

t 

** 

t 

** 

**** 

t 

t 

t 

** 

f 

** 

** 

*** 

t 

t 

*** 

** 

Fl°misii                                               -    

*** 

*** 

t 

**** 

t 

t 

**** 

*** 

Forelle                                                

t 

*** 

t 

*** 

t 

t 

** 

f 

Glout  Morceau                                         

** 

*** 

t 

t 

t 

'     f 

**** 

t 

Hardy 

** 

** 

f 

** 

t 

t 

** 

f 

Howell 

*** 

*** 

t 

**** 

*** 

t 

*** 

f 

Kieffer 

**** 

***** 

t 

**** 

**** 

*** 

***** 

f 

*** 

f 

*#* 

f 

f 

**** 

f 

f 

*** 

t 

*** 

t 

t 

***** 

f 

Louise  Bonne  

t 

*** 

t 

«** 

t 

t 

**** 

t 

Mount   Vernon   
Rossney                __  _    _  

t 

**# 

t 

** 

t 

f 

**** 

t 
t 

Seckel                     -       -    -  

* 

* 

* 

** 

t 

*»* 

* 

Vicar                                               

t 

**** 

t 

**** 

t 

t 

**** 

f 

Wilder                                                

t 

*** 

**** 

t 

f 

**** 

t 

Winter  Bartlett  _._    -  - 

**** 

t 

t 

t 

-N- 

***** 

t 

Winter  Nelis  ___ 

f 

tNot  reported  as  being  of  any  value  in  this  region. 

*Best. 

**Very  good. 
**Good. 
**Medium. 
Poor. 


5—37406 


284 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER   III. 

TREES,  STOCKS  AND  PROPAGATION. 

STANDARD  TREES. 

The  planter  has  his  choice  of  two  general  classes  of  pear  trees  desig- 
nated as  standard  and  dwarf.  The  former  consist  of  known  varieties 
budded  or  grafted  into  seedling  roots,  which  may  be  produced  from 
seeds  of  any  of  the  cultivated  varieties  but  which  are  usually  of  Euro- 
pean or  Asiatic  origin.  The  wild  pear  of  Europe  (Pyrus  communis), 
has  been  used  almost  entirely  in  the  past  for  propagating  standard 
trees.  The  nurserymen,  as  a  rule,  have  bought  what  are  known  to  the 
trade  as  French  seedlings,  getting  them  directly  from  France,  where 


FIG.  100.  Water  sprouts  at  the  base  of  Bartlett  tree,  illustrating  the 
tendency  of  the  French  root  Pyrus  communis  to  develop  an  abundance  of 
succulent  sprouts. 

they  are  grown  in  great  quantities  for  importation  into  the  United 
States.  Large  nursery  companies  contract  for  them  and  in  turn  supply 
the  smaller  nurserymen.  These  seedlings  are  planted  in  the  nursery 
row  and  are  later  budded  or  grafted  with  the  desired  variety.  A  large, 
vigorous  tree  results  if  stock,  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  favorable. 
The  Asiatic  wild  species  of  pear,  formerly  called  Pyrus  sinensis,  but 
now  known  to  be  Pyrus  serotina,  has  been  successfully  used  in  propa- 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


285 


gating  standard  trees,  and  possesses  certain  merits  which  will  undoubt- 
edly make  it  more  popular  than  the  French  species  in  the  future,  unless 
some  undesirable  characteristics,  which  at  present  are  not  known, 
should  develop.  In  addition  to  Pyrus  serotina,  there  are  a  number  of 
other  species  grown  in  China  and  Japan,  some  of  which  are  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  varieties  and  species  resistant  to 
pear  blight.  The  French  stock  has* a  tendency  to  produce  an  abundance 


FIG.  101.  Large  leaf  from  Japanese  seedling,  Pyrus  serotina; 
small  leaf  from  French  seedling,  Pyrus  communls,  showing  the 
characteristic  shape  and  serration. 

of  water  sprouts,  which  often  completely  surround  a  tree  in  a  dense 
thicket-like  mass.  This  unfavorable  characteristic,  which  is  not  possessed 
by  the  Asiatic  or  commonly  called  Japanese  stock,  that  has  been  used 
for  propagation  in  this  country,  has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  worst  dis- 
ease of  the  pear,  viz:  blight,  as  the  growth  coming  directly  from  the 
roots  often  becomes  infested  with  aphis,  thrips,  or  other  insects  or  mites 
and  the  disease  is  carried  into  the  root  system,  where  control  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  and  expensive  and  eradication  is  scarcely  possible.  In 
addition  to  the  absence  of  water  sprouts  with  Pyrus  serotina  stock,  it 
is  much  more  desirable  than  Pyrus  communis  because  it  is  now  known 
to  be  highly  resistant  to  blight.  This  phase  of  the  subject  is  fully 
treated  in  chapter  on  fungous  diseases  in  connection  with  the  pear  blight 
discussion. 


286  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  appearance  between  the  French  and 
Japanese  seedlings.  The  leaf  of  the  former  is  much  smaller,  more 
round  or  heart-shaped  and  has  a  characteristic  serration  of  the  margin, 


FIG.  102.    Fruit  from  Japanese  seed- 
ling pear,  Pyrus  serotina. 

which  is  less  prominent  and  otherwise  quite  different  from  the  Japanese, 
which  also  possesses  a  characteristic  shape  and  serration.  The  leaf  of 
the  Japanese  stock  is  much  larger.  The  apex  is  long,  narrowing  gradu- 
ally to  a  sharp  point,  while  the  apex  of  the  French  leaf  is  quite  blunt. 
The  differences  between  the  two  are  very  clearly  illustrated  in  Fig.  101. 

DWARF  TREES. 

Dwarfing  of  standard  varieties  of  pears  has  been  practiced  to  a 
limited  extent  for  a  long  time.  In  California  the  writer  has  observed 
two  very  successful  orchards  of  dwarf  trees,  viz:  the  Block  orchard  at 
San  Jose  and  the  Frank  T.  Swett  orchard  at  Martinez.  Both  orchards 
are  heavy  and  consistent  bearers.  The  dwarfing  is  brought  about  by  the 
use  of  the  quince  root.  The  variety  known  as  Angers  is  commonly  used. 
Trees  should  be  double-drafted,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Swett  orchard, 
which  has  a  quince  root  system,  Hardy  trunks  and  Bartlett  tops.  The 
double-working  is  practiced  because  of  the  fact  that  the  Bartlett 
variety  does  not  make  a  good  union  with  the  quince.  The  growth 
at  best  is  apt  to  be  very  unsatisfactory  and  breaking  off  at  the  union  of 
Bartlett  with  the  quince  is  apt  to  take  place  during  a  high  wind.  There 
are  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  dwarf  trees.  They  come  into 
bearing  earlier  than  standards  and  being  small  they  are  more  easily 
sprayed  and  pruned;  blight,  when  it  occurs  in  the  branches,  can  be 
removed  with  less  trouble  and  expense,  and  picking  is  greatly  facilitated. 
In  sections  of  heavy  winds  dwarfs  may  be  grown  to  good  advantage, 
provided  that  stock  has  been  used  which  has  made  a  perfectly  satis- 
factory union  with  the  quince  and  provided  they  have  been  planted 
sufficiently  deep  to  protect  the  union.  The  disadvantages  usually  given 
are  included  in  their  lack  of  hardiness,  and  supposed  tendency  to  be 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  287 

short-lived.  This  tendency  is  without  doubt  overcome  to  a  large  extent 
by  the  use  of  congenial  stocks  and  the  proper  care  of  the  orchard. 
There  is  no  logical  reason  why  dwarf  pears  should  not  possess  as  great 
longevity  as  standards  and  the  two  orchards  mentioned  indicate  that  in 
California  there  need  be  no  hesitancy  about  planting  dwarfs  because  of 
a  fear  that  they  will  not  live  long.  The  possible  inferiority  of  the  fruit 
of  some  varieties  as  compared  to  that  grown  on  standard  trees  has  been 
suggested.  As  many  more  can  be  planted  to  an  acre  than  in  the  case  of 
standards,  the  production  is  often  greater.  Deep  planting  may  cause 
the  growth  of  roots  from  above  graft,  and  a  tree  possessing  both  dwarf 
and  standard  roots  will  result.  Such  trees  are  not  objectionable  except 
that  if  planting  has  been  done  at  distances  suitable  only  for  dwarfs, 
heavy  pruning  will  be  required  to  keep  them  within  bounds. 

SEEDLINGS. 

The  two  kinds  of  seedling  trees  commonly  called  French  and  Japa- 
nese, but  more  accurately  Pyrus  communis  and  Pyrus  serotina,  have 
already  been  mentioned,  and  some  of  the  merits  and  faults  of  each 
discussed.  There  are  very  few  nurserymen  in  this  country  who  grow 
their  own  seedlings  for  propagating  purposes,  but  if  one  desires  to  do 
so  little  difficulty  need  be  experienced.  Desirable  seeds  well  matured 
from  any  variety  may  be  chosen.  The  trees  which  will  result  from 
the  planting  of  seeds  of  a  known  variety  will  vary  widely,  and  some 
may  not  be  good  stock.  For  example,  if  Bartlett  seeds  are  used,  each 
tree  grown  from  them  will  probably  be  very  different  from  the  Bartlett ; 
no  two  will  have  the  same  characteristics,  and  the  stock  resulting  is 
not  liable  to  possess  either  the  uniformity  or  desirability  of  the  seedling 
stock  of  the  wild  species.  If  seeds  of  either  Pyrus  communis  or  Pyrus 
serotina  can  be  secured,  or  if  it  is  thought  advisable  to  plant  seeds  of 
some  of  the  improved  varieties  of  the  pear,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter 
to  get  them  to  grow.  The  following  method  of  treating  the  seed  and 
seedlings  after  they  have  grown  is  recommended  :* 

"The  seeds  should  be  stratified,  i.  e.,  mixed  in  alternate  layers  of 
moist  sand  in  a  box,  covered  securely  to  guard  against  rats  and  mice, 
and  the  box  should  be  placed  on  the  north  side  of  some  building  where 
it  will  be  exposed  to  freezing  and  thawing  throughout  the  winter  until 
the  time  of  planting.  If  the  seeds  are  planted  in  rows  three  feet 
apart  in  good  soil,  and  given  thorough  culture,  they  will  make  a 
sufficient  growth  in  one  season  for  budding  or  grafting.  If  wanted  for 
root  grafting  the  seedlings  should  be  taken  up  in  the  fall  and  stored 
in  a  cellar  where  they  will  keep  fresh  and  be  accessible  at  any  time 
during  the  winter;  if  wanted  for  budding  they  may  be  buried  in  the 
soil  outside  until  the  time  of  planting  in  the  spring,  when  they  may 
be  set  in  nursery  rows  four  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  ten  inches  apart 
in  the  row." 

BUDDING. 

The  most  popular  and  undoubtedly  the  best  method  for  making  the 
seedling  over  into  the  improved  variety  selected  is  budding,  and  prac- 
tically all  nurserymen  adopt  this  plan  rather  than  the  old  method  of 

'Farmers  Bulletin  482  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  by  G.  B.  Brackett. 


288 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


root  grafting.  In  the  budding  method  the  seedlings,  without  being 
removed  from  the  nursery  row  in  which  they  are  growing  may  have 
inserted  into  them  the  buds  of  the  future  commercial  tree.  Such  work 
is  usually  done  in  the  fall,  August  and  September  being  the  best  months. 
A  1'imited  amount  of  budding  is  done  during  the  month  of  June.  The 
operation  is  simple,  results  in  little  or  no  injury  to  the  tree,  and  there 


fl 


FIG.  103.  Budding  knife,  bud  sticks,  and  the 
operation  of  budding.  (Recopied  from  Farmers 
Bulletin  482,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by 
G.  B.  Brackett.) 

is  good  reason  to  believe  minimizes  the  amount  of  crown  gall  trouble 
which  often  develops  at  the  point  of  union  of  a  graft  with  the  seedling 
root.  Fig.  103  shows  a  budding  knife  and  the  method  of  cutting, 
inserting  and  tying  the  bud.  The  latter  operation  is  of  great 
importance,  and  often  the  failure  of  buds  to  grow  is  due  to  poor  tying. 


70 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  289 

A  striking  illustration  of  this  fact  was  brought  to  the  writer's  atten- 
tion while  conducting  an  experiment  in  the  fumigation  of  peach  nursery 
buds,  in  a  Maryland  nursery,  to  destroy  San  Jose  scale,  and  to  deter- 
mine the  strength  of  gas  that  the  buds  would  stand.  A  number  of 
bud  sticks  were  treated  with  heavy  doses  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  and 
the  greatest  of  care  was  exercised  in  tying  the  buds  after  insertion. 
The  work  was  done  by  colored  help  who  were  anxious  to  please  because 
of  an  expected  tip.  As  a  result  of  the  exceedingly  careful  work, 
especially  that  of  tying  the  buds  securely  to  the  stock  practically  100 
per  cent  of  a  stand  was  secured.  Rows  alongside  in  which  untreated 
buds  were  inserted,  but  without  the  same  care  in  placing  and  tying, 
had  little  more  than  50  per  cent  of  a  stand.  This  illustration,  while 
it  concerns  peaches,  will  no  doubt  apply  equally  as  well  in  the  case  of 
pears,  and  shows  the  necessity  for  careful  work  in  budding,  which  is 
sometimes  sacrificed  for  speed.  Buds  are  tied  either  with  a  fiber,  called 
raffia  or  cotton  twine,  which  is  removed  in  the  spring.  They  remain 
green  throughout  the  winter  months  if  a  satisfactory  union  has  taken 
place.  The  tops  of  the  seedling  trees  are  removed  just  above  the  bud 
early  the  following  season,  before  growth  begins,  then  all  the  strength 
of  the  root  system  is  utilized  in  the  development  of  a  top  from  the  bud. 
Bud-wood  should  be  carefully  selected,  well  matured,  and  above  all 
from  trees  that  are  known  absolutely  to  be  of  the  variety  desired,  and 
if  possible,  which  have  had  a  good  record  of  production  to  recommend 
them.  Water-sprout  growth  should  be  used  with  caution,  as  the  buds 
of  such  branches  are  invariably  weak.  The  biggest  and  strongest- 
looking  buds  on  thrifty  average  length,  current  year  growth  of  bearing 
trees,  are  the  most  desirable.  The  practice  of  securing  bud-wood 
during  the  time  of  pruning  in  young  orchards,  which  have  made  a 
rank  growth  and  which  have  never  borne,  is  wrong  and  should  be 
condemned.  In  the  first  place,  if  this  is  done,  the  bud-wood  is  not 
of  the  best  and  the  nurseryman  can  hardly  afford  to  take  the 
chances  of  his  stock  not  being  true  to  name.  At  the  present  time 
there  is  a  law  in  California  which  makes  it  a  misdemeanor  to  sell 
stock  not  true  to  name,  and  violations  are  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not 
less  than  $50  and  not  more  than  $500,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the 
county  jail  for  not  less  than  twenty  days  or  more  than  six  months,  or 
by  both  fine  and  imprisonment.  Thus  the  nurseryman,  in  addition 
to  losing  his  reputation  by  selling  trees  of  one  variety  for  another,  is 
laying  himself  liable  to  a  heavy  fine  and  imprisonment.  With  these 
facts  before  him,  the  California  nurseryman  must  exercise  the  greatest 
of  care  in  the  selection  of  buds  from  known  varieties.  The  better 
class  of  nurserymen  recognize  this  fact  more  keenly  than  any  one  else, 
but  the  few  who  are  in  the  business  merely  for  the  dollars  that  they 
get  out  of  it,  and  who  care  little  for  the  future  of  the  fruit  industry  of 
the  state,  are  apt  to  follow  the  lines  of  least  resistance  and  in  doing  so 
fail  to  take  the  precautions  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  grower 
who  makes  his  lifetime  investment  in  an  orchard  and  who  therefore 
is  entitled  to  great  consideration. 


71 


290 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


ROOT  GRAFTS. 

Propagation  by  root  grafts  requires  the  seedling  trees  grown  exactly 
as  those  for  budding.  The  seedlings  must  be  removed  from  the  ground 
in  the  fall,  and  placed  where  drying  out  will  not  take  place  during  the 
winter  season.  Grafting  wood  for  the  tops  should  be  cut  in  the  fall 
also,  and  preserved  in  a  like  manner.  A  common  method  is  to  keep 
both  scions  and  seedlings  in  a  damp  cellar,  moist  sand  being  one  of  the 
best  protective  materials.  Just  as  great-  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  the  grafts  or  scions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  bud-wood. 

The  work  of  root-grafting  may  be  done  any  time  during  the  dormant 
season  of  the  trees,  the  only  precaution  necessary  being  that  of  keeping 
them  from  drying  out.  The  method  generally  used  is  known  as  whip- 
grafting,  and  consists  in  cutting  the  seedling  just  below  the  crown  or 
ground  line,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  104,  and  fitting  the  scion,  similarly 
cut,  into  it  so  that  the  cambium  layer  of  the  scion  on  one  side  of  the 
completed  graft  matches  as  closely  as  possible  that  of  the  seedling. 


FIG.  104.  Operation  of  whip  grafting. 
(Redrawn,  by  O.  W.  Newman,  from 
Downing's  "Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of 
America.") 

These  scions  may  vary  somewhat,  but  the  length  generally  recommended 
is  about  six  inches.  The  whole  root  system  of  the  seedling  tree  should 
be  used,  with  the  exception  of  injured  roots,  which  should  be  removed. 
Piece  root-grafting,  as  frequently  practiced  with  the  apple,  is  not 
recommended  for  the  pear. 

After  fitting  the  scion  and  rootstock  together  they  should  be 
held  securely  in  place  by  cord,  wax,  wax  paper  or  a  com- 
bination of  these.  It  must  be  remembered  that  any  material 
used  for  tying  can  not  well  be  removed  after  grafts  are  planted,  so  it  is 
necessary  to  use  something  that  will  rot  quickly  and  thus  eliminate  the 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  291 

danger  of  injury  to  the  tree.  Frequently  trees  are  seen  that  have  been 
tied,  when  grafted,  with  strong  waxed  thread  or  twine  which  does  not 
rot,  and  as  a  consequence  the  flow  of  sap  is  interfered  with  and  there 
results  an  enlargement  of  the  tree  at  point  of  union,  or  even  girdling, 
and  the  subsequent  death  of  the  tree.  For  this  reason  tying  should  be 
carefully  done,  using  no  more  twine  than  is  necessary.  Cotton  knitting 
thread,  Nos.  18  or  20,  is  recommended.  Tying  of  the  thread  is  not 
necessary  as  the  end  may  be  pulled  into  the  cut  of  the  whip  graft. 
Waxing  over  the  surface  of  the  twine  is  frequently  practiced;  also 
waxing  the  twine  before  use,  which  precludes  the  necessity  of  tying. 

Root-grafts  are  set  out  in  the  nursery  row  in  the  spring  and  will 
develop  tops  of  sufficient  size  for  planting  in  the  orchard  the  following 
spring,  making  the  one-year-old  tree  which  is  recommended  under  prac- 
tically all  conditions  in  California. 


73 


292  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

SELECTION  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  FOR  PLANTING. 

In  buying  trees  it  is  well  first  of  all  to  know  the  nurseryman  with 
whom  one  is  dealing,  and  to  insist  upon  good  stock.  Such  stock  usually 
sells  for  a  good  price.  The  man  who  buys  cheap  trees  is  laying  the  best 
possible  foundation  for  a  cheap  orchard,  as  cheap  trees,  in  practically 
every  case,  are  inferior  trees.  This  rule  is,  of  course,  subject  to  excep- 
tions, as  it  frequently  happens  that  very  large  two  or  three-year-old  trees 
are  sold  for  a  high  price  simply  because  of  their  size,  even  though  they 
are  usually  inferior  to  smaller  trees.  Generally  speaking  the  trees  that 
are  quoted  at  very  low  figures  are  culls  which  have  failed  to  develop  in 
the  nursery  as  other  trees  grown  under  exactly  the  same  conditions, 
or  trees  which  have  had  a  large  part  of  the  root-system  cut  away  in 
digging.  Such  stock  is  often  inherently  weak  and  will  never  make  first- 
class  trees  in  the  orchard.  The  best  trees  are  those  that  have  had  one 
year's  growth  in  the  nursery,  after  budding  or  grafting  has  been  done. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  the  tops  of  such  trees  are  unbranched  and 
are  what  the  nurseryman  knows  as  one-year  whips. 

Varieties  should  be  chosen  according  to  the  best  knowledge  that  can 
be  obtained  as  to  their  adaptation  to  the  existing  conditions  of  the 
locality  where  they  are  to  be  planted.  In  nearly  every  neighborhood 
there  are  bearing  trees  of  various  sorts  which  will  serve  as  a  guide  in 
selecting  for  the  orchard.  Those  that  are  known  to  do  well  under 
similar  conditions  can  be  safely  selected ;  those  that  are  a  failure  should 
not  be  considered.  If  no  bearing  trees  can  be  found  conclusions  may 
be  drawn  after  finding  out  what  varieties  do  well  elsewhere  under 
similar  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  In  California  the  Bartlett  is 
by  far  the  most  popular  pear,  and  generally  speaking  the  choice  of 
varieties  is  difficult  only  in  the  case  of  selecting  a  few  trees  of  some  other 
kind  to  plant  with  the  Bartlett  for  the  purpose  of  cross-pollination.  As 
this  matter  will  be  discussed  fully  under  the  heading  of  "Varieties"  it 
is  not  necessary  to  dwell  Upon  it  further  here. 

FREEDOM    FROM    DISEASE    AND    INSECT    PESTS. 

Pear  trees  are  subject  to  attack  by  some  very  serious  diseases  and 
insect  and  mite  pests.  All  stock  should  be  carefully  examined  in  order 
that  the  presence  of  anything  detrimental  might  be  detected.  The 
county  horticultural  commissioners  and  their  inspectors  are  constantly 
on  the  lookout  for  these  things,  but  the  planter  himself,  when  he  pur- 
chases trees,  should  also  inspect  them  so  carefully  that  he  will  know  just 
exactly  their  condition.  Such  pests  as  borers  and  crown  gall  are  easily 
detected,  and  affected  trees  when  found  should  be  condemned  for  plant- 
ing. The  roots  should  be  examined  very  carefully  for  the  woolly  or  root 
aphis  of  the  pear,  which  is  one  of  the  most  serious  pests  attacking  this 
tree.  A  description  of  this  insect  may  be  found  in  the  chapter  dealing 
with  insect  pests.  If  this  pest  is  known  to  occur  in  the  nursery  where  the 


7-1 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  293 

trees  were  grown  safety  would  require  their  treatment  by  dipping  in  a 
solution  of  Black  Leaf  "40,"  or,  still  better,  fumigation  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas.  See  formula  No.  19. 

DIGGING    AND    CARE    OF     NURSERY    TREES     BEFORE    THEY     REACH 

THE     PLANTER. 

The  nurseryman's  responsibility  for  the  character  of  the  orchards 
that  are  grown  from  trees  that  he  propagates  is  very  great.  When  we 
stop  to  consider  the  fact  that  practically  all  of  the  orchards  are  grown 
from  trees  that  are  propagated  by  nurserymen  whose  duty  it  is  to 
know  that  the  trees  sold  are  true  to  name,  free  from  dangerous  insect 
pests  and  disease,  etc.,  we  can  begin  to  realize  that  the  nurseryman's 
trade  is  one  of  great  importance,  and  that  the  man  who  conducts  a 
reputable  business  represents  a  type  of  public  servant  who  is  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  the  horticultural  industry  of  the  state  or  locality  where 
he  conducts  his  business.  Conversely  the  nurseryman  who  is  not  reliable 
and  who  thinks  only  of  the  present  and  the  few  dollars  that  his  trade 
brings  him  represents  a  public  menace  in  that  he  retards  the  progress 
of  horticulture  through  the  dissemination  of  his  inferior  stock. 

Digging. 

This  operation  is  of  much  importance,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
condition  of  the  root  system  is  largely  dependent  upon  how  the  trees 
are  dug.  The  type  of  digger  used  in  most  of  the  nurseries  consists  of  a 
large  plow  with  a  more  or  less  semicircular  blade  which  cuts  the  roots 
at  any  desired  depth  and  lifts  the  trees  partially  from  the  soil  so  that 
they  can  be  easily  pulled  by  hand.  If  diggers  are  run  too  shallow  the 
roots  that  are  left  on  the  trees  are  too  short,  and  what  might  have  been 
first-class  trees,  if  properly  dug,  are  second  rate. 

At  the  time  of  pulling,  trees  can  easily  be  inspected  for  crown  gall, 
nematodes,  borers,  etc.  Most  of  the  nurserymen  plan  to  throw  out  all 
inferior  trees  at  this  time  previous  to  tying  in  bunches  of  ten  or  twenty. 

Fumigation. 

The  freshly  dug  trees  after  having  been  tied  in  bunches  may  be 
hauled  to  the  fumigating  house  where  treatment  for  the  pear  root  louse, 
scale  insects  and  other  insect  pests  takes  place.  The  value  of  fumigation 
must  not  be  minimized.  When  efficiency,  cheapness  and  convenience  of 
the  fumigation  operation  are  taken  into  consideration,  there  is  nothing 
that  will  compare  favorably  with  it  for  the  treatment  of  nursery  stock. 

Fumigating  Buildings  and   Boxes. 

For  the  fumigation  of  nursery  stock  the  all  important  requisite  is  a 
perfectly  tight  box  or  house  in  which  the  gas  can  be  confined  for  any 
desired  length  of  time  without  leakage.  In  order  that  this  may  be 
possible  careful  construction  is  necessary.  The  usual  fumigation  house 
consists  of  double  boarded  walls  with  heavy  buildin'g  paper  between. 
Doors  of  the  type  used  on  refrigerator  cars  are  best.  After  a  building 
has  been  constructed  the  measurements  must  be  carefully  taken  and  the 
cubical  contents  determined  accurately. 


294 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


F'IG.   105.     A  good  type  of  fumigation  house. 


FIG.  106.  Interior  view  of  fumigation  house  shown  in  Fig.  105.  Note  the  platform 
built  midway  between  the  roof  and  the  floor,  also  the  generating  jar  in  background 
near  the  door. 


76 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  295 

Fig.  105  shows  a  picture  of  the  fumigating  house  of  the  Silva-Berg- 
tholdt  Nursery  Company  of  Newcastle.  The  heavy  door  with  padding 
to  insure  against  leakage  in  gas  is  clearly  shown.  The  interior  view, 
Fig.  106,  shows  a  platform  erected  midway  between  the  floor  and  ceiling 
to  prevent  too  close  packing  of  the  lower  bunches  of  trees  from  the 
weight  of  bunches  above  with  the  possible  interference  with  the  diffu- 
sion of  the  gas.  This  feature,  while  not  absolutely  necessary,  is 
desirable. 

In  the  larger  nurseries  a  house  of  sufficient  size  so  that  a  loaded  wagon 
or  auto  truck  could  be  driven  into  the  house  and  fumigated  without 
unloading  the  trees  would  be  a  decided  advantage. 

Fumigation   Process. 

An  earthenware  jar  of  sufficient  capacity  for  the  house  is  used  as  a 
container  for  the  chemicals  which  generate  the  gas.  When  the  building 
is  packed  with  trees  ready  for  fumigation  the  required  amount  of  cya- 
nide of  potassium  or  cyanide  of  sodium,  accurately  weighed,  is  dropped 
into  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  the  proper  amount.  The  proportions  are 
1  ounce  by  weight  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  1  fluid  ounce  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  3  fluid  ounces  of  water  for  every  100  cubic  feet  of  space,  or 
f  ounce  by  weight  of  cyanide  of  sodium,  1J  fluid  ounces  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  2  fluid  ounces  of  water  to  every  100  cubic  feet  of  space. 

Method. 

First  measure  the  required  amount  of  water  and  put  it  in  the 
generator,  then  measure  the  acid  and  pour  it  into  the  water.  Never 
reverse  this  process,  as  water  poured  into  acid  will  cause  a  violent 
sputtering  which  may  injure  the  operator.  The  house  should  now  be 
tightly  closed  with  the  exception  of  one  door  near  the  generator. 
Everything  being  in  readiness,  the  cyanide  of  potassium  or  sodium, 
according  to  which  is  used,  is  dropped  into  the  jar  and  the  remaining 
open  door  quickly  closed.  The  gas  escapes  immediately  when  the 
cyanide  is  dropped  into  the  generator  and  may  be  seen  as  a  cloud 
of  vapor  rapidly  ascending  to  the  ceiling.  The  house  must  be  left 
tightly  closed  for  at  least  45  minutes,  and  no  injury  will  result  to 
trees  from  a  one-hour  fumigation.  They  should  not  be  left  in  a  longer 
time  than  one  hour.  After  45  minutes  to  one  hour  have  elapsed  the 
doors  are  thrown  wide  open  and  the  gas  escapes  from  the  building 
quite  rapidly. 

Caution. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  the  product  of  the  treatment  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  or  cyanide  of  sodium  with  sulphuric  acid,  is  a  deadly  poison 
and  is  fatal  if  inhaled  in  small  .quantities  unless  very  dilute.  In 
the  open  air  there  is  little  danger  but  when  confined  in  a  build- 
ing where  it  is  very  concentrated  one  deep  breath  would  almost 
surely  result  in  the  death  of  the  person  inhaling.  Therefore  men 
should  never  be  allowed  to  remove  trees  from  a  fumigation  house 
until  it  has  been  aired  fifteen  minutes,  or  more.  With  ordinary 
precautions  the  gas  may  be  used  with  safety  as  attested  by  the  gen- 
eral fumigation  of  thousands  of  acres  of  citrus  groves  every  season 
with  rarely  an  accident  or  a  death  from  the  inhalation  of  gas. 

77 


296  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

The  cyanide  is  also  a  deadly  poison  and  must  be  handled  with  great 
care.  It  should  never  be  placed  within  the  reach  of  children  as  the 
tempting  crystals  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  candy,  but  a  piece,  if 
put  into  the  mouth,  would  cause  almost  instant  death. 

Care  of  Trees  After  Delivery. 

There  are  hundreds  of  cases  of  trees  dying  after  they  have  been 
set  in  the  orchard,  where  the  blame  for  their  loss  has  been  unjustly 
attached  to  the  nurseryman.  In  handling  trees  it  must  be  remembered 
that  it  is  unnatural  for  the  root  system  to  be  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
every  precaution  possible  should  be  taken  to  prevent  unnecessary 
exposure,  which  will  quickly  cause  a  loss  of  moisture  and  possible 
death.  While  trees  will  stand  considerable  exposure,  and  while  roots 
may  become  reasonably  dry  and  still  grow  when  covered  with  soil, 
the  ideal  condition  for  them  occurs  only  when  moisture  is  present 
in  sufficient  quantities  so  that  the  surface  of  the  bark  will  not  become 
dry  and  shriveled.  Yet  so  many  nurserymen  and  orchardists  thought- 
lessly or  otherwise  allow  the  roots  to  be  exposed  during  warm  weather 
until  they  become  thoroughly  dried  out,  and  later  wonder  why  the 
trees  fail  to  grow.  Just  as  soon  as  a  lot  of  trees  is  unpacked  upon 
arrival  at  their  destination  the  roots  should  be  covered  in  trenches, 
a  process  known  as  "healing  in."  In  the  trenches  trees  may  be 
crowded  close  together,  as  it  is  not  expected  that  they  will  be  left  long 
enough  for  roots  to  start  growth,  but  merely  until  the  orchard  is  ready 
to  receive  them.  While  heeled  in  they  must,  however,  be  kept  moist 
and  under  just  as  favorable  conditions  as  in  the  orchard. 


78 


ROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  297 


CHAPTER  V. 

DISTANCE  AND  SYSTEMS  FOR  PLANTING  AND  NUMBER 
OF  TREES  PER  ACRE. 

There  has  been  a  tendency  in  the  past  to  plant  all  fruit  trees  too  close 
together.  This  has  been  brought  about  because  of  a  desire  to  attain 
the  maximum  production,  which  has  very  frequently  been  secured  at 
the  expense  of  size,  uniformity  and  quality.  As  most  varieties  of  the 
pear  naturally  grow  upright,  trees  may  be  planted  closer  together  than 
many  other  deciduous  trees,  e.  g.,  apples,  peaches  and  apricots.  This 
tendency  of  upright  growth  may  be  overcome  to  a  large  extent  by 
proper  methods  of  pruning  as  discussed  in  another  chapter.  With  the 
present  methods  employed  in  pruning  our  Bartlett  pears  the  majority 
of  the  growers  have  concluded  that  20  x  20  feet  is  the  best  distance. 
Out  of  a  total  of  72  owners  of  pear  orchards  in  the  counties  of  Alameda, 
El  Dorado,  Lake,  Mendocino,  Napa,  Placer  and  Sacramento,  thirty-one 
preferred  this  distance.  Among  those  who  favored  some  other  distance 
were  three  who  thought  21  x  21  feet  to  be  best,  six  22  x  22  feet,  seven 
24  x  24  feet,  four  25  x  25  feet,  two  26  x  26  feet,  one  27  x  27  feet  and  one 
30  x  30  feet.  The  remainder  held  opinions  varying  from  16  x  16  to 
18  x  20  feet.  The  maximum  distance  of  30  x  30,  as  given  by  one  grower 
as  the  best  according  to  his  opinion,  is  probably  a  little  greater  than 
is  necessary.  Twenty-five  feet  each  way  when  planted  on  the  square  is 
more  nearly  ideal,  and  while  the  space  above  ground  will  be  pretty  well 
occupied  by  the  branches  of  trees  set  at  this  distance,  there  will  be  little 
if  any  crowding.  The  upright  habit  of  growth  occurs  in  its  extreme 
form  when  planting  is  closest,  and  may  be  overcome  to  a  great  extent 
by  planting  wider  apart.  Fig.  12  illustrates  an  extreme  type  of  spread 
in  the  Bartlett  due  to  good  soil  and  plenty  of  room. 

Climatic  and  soil  conditions  should  very  largely  determine  the  dis- 
tance for  planting.  In  some  of  the  mountain  counties  of  high  altitude 
the  growing  season  is  short  and  growth  is  much  less  than  in  the  lower, 
fertile,  river-bottom  sections,  where  maximum  size  is  attained.  In  the 
first  case  it  might  not  be  best  to  set  trees  over  18  feet  apart  each  way, 
while  in  the  latter  25  x  25  feet  would  in  many  cases  be  more  advanta- 
geous. From  observations  that  have  been  made  in  all  the  pear-growing 
sections  of  the  state,  and  from  correspondence  with  many  of  the  lead- 
ing growers,  the  distance  of  20  x  20  feet  has  been  decided  upon  as  being 
best  for  standard  trees  under  practically  all  conditions.  When 
planted  at  this  distance  there  are  108  trees  to  the  acre. 

Occasionally  it  is  desired  to  interplant  in  a  pear  orchard  with  peaches, 
prunes  or  other  trees.  In  such  cases  the  pear  trees  should  be  set  not 
closer  than  30  feet  each  way  on  the  square ;  in  the  middle  of  each  square 
a  tree  of  the  filler  desired  may  be  set,  which  will  be  21  feet  from  each 
tree  on  the  four  corners  of  the  square.  As  the  pear  tree  comes  into 
profitable  bearing  quite  early  (five  to  seven  years)  there  is  little  advan- 
tage to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  fillers,  and  the  practice  of  placing  them 

79 


298 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


U U. tr. 


U.. 

L 

<L 


4. 


.i,- 1. U..-...L.. 


'IL     ^ 


,t- u., 4 


-.  ....     '--4ft 


%= 


« j- 


4* 


FIG.   107.     The  square  system  of  planting.    FIG.  108.     The  triangular  or  alternate  sys- 
( After  Lelong.)  tern  of  planting.      (After  Lelong.) 


,  .......  U  .....  \r    -  —tr  .........  ^  ......  '- 


U        ' 


*_ 


4L 


4L 


4L 


...U., 


/i••,.A.^:^U::^i?:.;..  U..  .U. 
>  '\^    L  ••->    U*  ^.u 


t    u  ;  '-U     u  V>U     u>-  4-     u"  •  -L 


FIG.  109.     The  quincunx  system  of  plant-       FIG.  110.    The  hexagonal  system  of  plant- 
ing.     (After  Lelong.)  ing.      (After  Lelong.) 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  299 

in  the  pear  orchard  is  not  recommended.  Dwarf  pears  are  ordinarily 
planted  from  10  to  12  feet  apart  ;  if  the  former  distance,  there  would  be 
435  to  the  acre  ;  if  the  latter,  there  would  be  302  per 


SYSTEMS   FOR   PLANTING. 

Four  systems  of  planting  trees,  designated  as  square,  triangular,  quin- 
cunx and*  hexagonal,  are  well  illustrated  in  Figs.  107,  108,  109,  110,  after 
Lelong.  The  first  or  square  system  is  the  most  commonly  used.  Mark- 
ing the  area  for  planting  is  easiest  under  this  system,  and  it  has  the 
advantage  of  allowing  plenty  of  room  for  hauling,  cultivation  and  other 
orchard  operations  between  the  rows  in  two  directions  in  the  relatively 
wide  spaces  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

The  hexagonal  system  is  recommended  by  many,  its  chief  advantage 
being  in  the  fact  that  every  tree  is  equidistant  from  all  adjacent  trees, 
and  about  15  per  cent  more  trees  can  be  set  to  the  acre.  With  this 
system  the  space  above  ground  occupied  by  the  tops  of  the  trees,  and 
below  ground  by  the  root  systems,  should  be  utilized  to  best  advantage  ; 
but  the  absence  of  wide  spaces  between  the  rows  makes  it  impractical 
from  the  standpoint  of  many  growers,  as  cultivation,  hauling  and  all 
other  work  of  the  orchard  requiring  the  use  of  teams  or  tractors  is 
complicated. 

NUMBER  OF  TREES   PER  ACRE. 

In  an  acre  of  land  there  are  43,560  square  feet,  and  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  number  of  trees  required  per  acre  if  planted  on  the  square,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  divide  this  number  by  the  product  of  the  distances 
in  feet  that  the  trees  are  to  be  planted.  For  example,  it  is  desired  to 
plant  pears  20  x  20  feet  on  the  square.  The  product  of  these  distances 
is  400,  and  43,560  divided  by  400  gives  108,  the  number  of  trees  per 
acre.  If  the  hexagonal  system  of  planting  is  used  instead,  and  the  same 
distance  is  desired,  there  will  be  124  trees  to  the  acre,  or  an  increase 
of  15  per  cent. 


6—37406  81 


300 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION  FOR  PLANTING. 

The  pear  is  one  of  the  hardiest  fruit  trees  and  flourishes  on  many 
types  of  soil  and  occasionally  under  conditions  which  no  other  trees 
would  stand.  The  exceedingly  fertile  valley  soils  along  the  river 
bottoms  of  the  North  Central  Interior  Region  are  well  adapted  for  pear 
culture.  Trees  on  such  soils  make  a  very  rapid  and  thrifty  growth,  and 
bear  regularly  and  heavily  with  a  minimum  amount  of  fertilizing. 
Much  of  this  bottom  land  soil  is  subject  to  periodical  flooding  during  the 
winter  season,  and  the  pear  is  the  only  fruit  tree  that  will  thrive  under 
the  excessive  moisture  conditions  that  sometimes  exist.  Fig.  Ill  shows 


FIG.  111.  Bartlett  pear  orchard  on  low  land  where  the  trees  stand  in 
water  for  weeks  during  the  rainy  season.  In  the  center  of  the  picture  may 
be  seen  indistinctly  a  post  left  near  the  top  of  the  tree  by  receding -high 
water. 

an  orchard  in  Tehama  County  which  is  planted  on  low  land  that  floods 
during  the  rainy,  season.  When  the  picture  was  taken  the  trees  were 
25  years  old  and  were  standing  in  water  from  1  to  3  feet  deep.  They 
were  blooming  and  leafing  out  under  this  seemingly  unfavorable  condi- 
tion, which  exists  for  weeks  at  a  time.  The  orchard  is  said  to  be 
productive,  seldom  failing  to  yield  a  good  crop.  There  are  many 
orchards  of  this  kind  along  the  Sacramento  River,  and  as  long  as  the 
under  drainage  is  good,  allowing  the  soil  to  dry  out  quickly  after  water 
is  removed  from  the  surface,  there  is  little  danger  of  the  trees  being 
injured.  On  the  other  hand  a  heavy  clay  subsoil  or  hardpan,  tending 
to  keep  the  water  in  the  upper  strata  of  soil  too  long,  will  cause  injury 
to  the  trees. 


PF.AR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


301 


The  red  granitic  soils,  such  as  those  in  the  foothill  sections  of  El 
Dorado,  Placer  and  Nevada  counties,  are  found  to  be  quite  well  adapted 
to  the  growing  of  pears.  While  the  trees  do  not  as  a  rule  make  as 
satisfactory  a  growth  as  they  do  in  the  valley,  the  fruit  is  highly  colored 
and  of  excellent  quality.  Pears  grown  in  these  sections  are  not  ready 
to  market  until  those  from  the  lower  elevations  of  the  Sacramento  and 
other  valleys  are  practically  gone.  This  late  maturity  practically 
insures  a  good  market  and  prices  obtained  are  generally  well  above  the 
average  for  the  state.  The  depth  of  the  soil  very  largely  determines  the 
size  that  the  trees  attain,  and  on  hillsides  where  it  is  shallow  they  are 
always  smaller  than  in  low  lands  where  there  is  a  greater  depth.  Cover 
crops  and  heavy  fertilization  with  barnyard  manure,  and  occasionally 
commercial  fertilizers,  improve  the  size  of  the  trees  on  the  type  of  soil 
found  in  the  mountainous  sections.  In  Lake  County  there  is  quite  a 
variety  of  soils  adapted  to  pear  growing,  and  some  very  large  trees  are 
produced  in  Scotts  Valley  and  Big  Valley  close  to  the  lake,  the  quality 
and  color  of  pears  being  similar  to  those  of  the  foothill  sections  along  the 
Sierras.  This  soil  varies  from  a  fairly  light  sandy  loam  along  the 
streams  to  a  rather  heavy  clay,  which  has  a  tendency  to  bake  and  become 
very  dry.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Mendocino,  Sonoma  and  Napa 
counties. 


,  '  FIG.   112.     Large  Bartlett  pear  trees  in  Lake  County. 

Many  excellent  pears  may  be  found  growing  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley 
on  a  great  variety  of  soils  varying  from  light  clay  loam  to  heavy  black, 
sticky  clay.  In  contrast  to  this  latter  type  of  soil  we  find  the  light, 
gravelly  soil  of  the  Mojave  Desert  in  Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino 
counties  growing  good  pear  trees. 

While  the  pear  will  thrive  under  some  conditions  that  other  fruit  trees 
will  not  stand,  and  will  grow  fairly  well  wherever  deciduous  trees  of  any 
kind  will  grow,  it  should  not  be  planted  on  very  shallow  soil  which  is 
better  adapted  to  peaches  and  plums.  If  the  soil  has  a  depth  of  3  feet 
or  over  they  may  be  expected  to  thrive,  and  other  conditions  being 
favorable  will  bring  the  owner  good  returns.  Quite  frequently  the  man 
who  is  contemplating  setting  out  pear  or  other  trees  bases  his  judgment 
as  to  what  they  will  do  under  his  conditions,  on  an  analysis  of  the  soil. 


302  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA 

While  theoretically  the  amount  of  plant  food  present-  in  a  soil  should 
be  a  safe  guide,  in  actual  practice  it  has  not  always  indicated  true  possi- 
bilities and  many  a  man  has  been  led  astray  by  soil  analysis.  Such 
analysis  will  show  how  much  food  material  there  is  in  the  soil,  but  will 
not  show  how  much  is  available,  and  the  only  test  is  to  plant  the  trees 
and  note  results.  Charles  B.  Lipman  states  as  follows  regarding  soil 
analysis  :* 

* '  This  idea  comes  down  to  us  from  the  days  of  Liebig,  who  with 
many  others  believed  that  analysis  of  soils  and  analysis  of  plants 
by  prevalent  methods  would,  by  giving  us  a  cue  to  amounts  of 
minerals  found  in  soils  and  in  plants  respectively  indicate  what 
minerals  and  in  what  quantities  they  should  be  returned  to  the  soil 
to  maintain  fertility.  While  this  kind  of  an  idea  appears  logical 
enough,  superficially,  more  careful  reflection  and  numerous  experi- 
ments prove  it  to  be,  if  not  erroneous,  at  least  of  little  practical 
value.  To  be  sure,  in  soils  which  are  totally  deficient  in  plant  foods, 
like  the  leached  sands  and  peats  of  the  Atlantic  coast  and  elsewhere, 
chemical  analyses  indicate  in  general  that  fertilizer  applications  are 
necessary.  But  in  the  large  number  of  soils  which  do  not  belong 
to  that  class,  and  especially  in  those  deep  soils  of  this  state  which 
are  so  well  supplied  with  large  quantities  of  the  plant  food  elements, 
ordinary  chemical  analysis  of  soils  can  not  be  used  as  a  criterion  to 
fertilizer  needs." 

Thus,  while  it  is  well  to  know  the  proportion  of  the  elements  of  plant 
food  in  a  soil,  conclusions  as  to  how  the  trees  will  grow  should  not  be 
drawn  from  this  information  alone.  In  cases  where  there  is  a  marked 
scarcity  of  certain  of  the  elements  of  plant  food  a  soil  analysis  is  some- 
times valuable  in  revealing  this  fact,  and  in  pointing  toward  a  solution 
by  the  use  of  proper  fertilizers. 

PREPARATION    FOR   PLANTING. 

Hastiness  in  planting  trees  in  an  orchard  before  the  land  has  been 
rightly  prepared  has  many  times  been  the  cause  for  regret  in  later 
years.  Run  down  grain  lands  that  have  grown  crops  of  wheat  and 
barley  for  twenty-five  years  or  more,  while  they  may  grow  fairly 
good  trees,  are  not  to  be  compared  to  virgin  or  alfalfa  soils.  There 
is  no  better  crop  to  grow  on  land  prior  to  setting  out  an  orchard  than 
alfalfa,  and  many  fine  orchards  testifying  to  this  fact  may  be  found 
in  the  state.  If  it  is  desired  to  set  trees  on  land  that  has  been  in 
grain  for  years,  or  that  has  been  recently  cleared  of  native  vegetation, 
two  or  three  years  in  alfalfa  will  greatly  improve  its  condition  by 
the  addition  of  nitrogen  and  humus,  as  well  as  physically,  and  the 
trees  will  respond  quickly  when  planted.  As  alfalfa  will  not  thrive 
without  more  moisture  than  comes  from  the  normal  rainfall  in  most 
parts  of  the  state  and  as  even  in  sections  of  abundant  rains  there  is 
liable  to  be  insufficient  moisture  in  the  summer  time,  irrigation  is 
necessary  in  order  that  the  foregoing  plan  may  be  carried  out. 

*"Some  Common  Misconceptions  with  Respect  to  Soils  and  Soil  Fertility."  The 
Monthly  Bulletin,  California  State  Commission  of  Horticulture,  Vol.  IV,  Nos.  5  and  6, 
p.  231. 

84 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  303 

The  amount  of  time  spent  in  leveling  the  tract  for  planting  will 
depend  much  on  whether  or  not  irrigation  is  to  be  practiced.  There 
are  a  few  successful  pear  growing  sections  in  the  state  where 
the  trees  are  grown  without  irrigation.  In  such  sections  if  it 
is  expected  that  trees  will  never  be  irrigated  it  would  not  be 
necessary  to  spend  as  much  time  in  grading,  although  a  certain  amount 
is  always  desirable.  If  there  is  even  a  possibility  of  irrigating  at 
some  later  time  this  work  should  never  be  neglected.  In  the  case  of 
land  to  be  irrigated  too  much  care  can  not  be  exercised  in  grading 
so  that  water  may  be  carried  through  the  orchard  without  difficulty 
from  the  main  ditches  or  pipe  lines.  Difficulty  is  often  experienced 
in  the  case  of  new  land  set  to  trees,  especially  if  such  land  has  never 
been  irrigated.  Settling  may  take  place  here  and  there  throughout 
an  orchard  which  will  prove  a  great  disadvantage  when  water  is  ap- 
plied later.  To  avoid  difficulty  of  this  nature  new  land  should  be 
thoroughly  flooded  before  trees  are  set,  and  then  leveled  afterwards. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  soil  should  receive  much  attention. 
Orchards  set  on  lumpy,  poorly  worked  soil  can  not  be  expected  to 
do  their  best.  The  trees  will  make  the  most  satisfactory  growth  when 
the  soil  is  worked  as  though  it  were  to  be  put  into  wheat  or  other 
grain  crop  requiring  a  fine  seed-bed.  Deep  plowing,  especially  where 
a  plowsole  or  hardpan  exists  is  necessary,  and  even  the  subsoil  plow  may 
be  used  to  advantage.  The  feeding  roots  of  trees  are  fine  and  delicate 
and  can  not  be  expected  to  perform  their  normal  functions  to  the 
best  advantage  unless  the  soil  is  loose  and  the  individual  particles  fine. 

MARKING  AND   DIGGING   HOLES. 

After  the  ground  has  been  plowed,  leveled  and  put  in  the  best 
possible  condition,the  tract  to  be  planted  is  marked  off  prior  to  digging 
the  holes  for  the  trees.  Sometimes  this  work  is  done  with  a  plow,  the 
ploughman  driving  to  stakes  set  in  line  of  the  rows  to  be  planted  in 
two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Instead  of  staking  out 
each  row  a  marker  may  be  attached  to  the  beam  of  the  plow.  This 
marker  traces  the  line  of  the  next  row  to  be  plowed  parallel  to  the 
one  being  made.  The  points  of  intersection  of  the  furrows  mark  the 
places  for  the  trees,  and  holes  are  dug  at  these  points  throughout  the 
field.  Instead  of  the  plow  being  used  in  this  work  the  entire  tract  may 
be  staked  off  by  means  of  a  transit  or  level,  or  by  sighting  to  stakes  set 
on  boundaries  of  the  field  and  on  one  or  more  rows  between.  This 
method  requires  a  great  deal  of  care  and  an  accurate  eye.  Small, 
fairly  level  tracts  can  be  quite  easily  and  accurately  marked  by  this 
method.  There  are  various  devices  used  for  measuring  and  finding 
the  corners  which  are  more  or  less  familiar  to  orchardists,  and  a  detailed 
description  is  not  necessary  here.  Every  one,  in  setting  out  an  orchard, 
should  take  a  pride  in  getting  the  rows  straight,  as  the  value  is  greatly 
enhanced  from  an  aesthetic  point  of  view,  if  the  alignment  is  perfect. 

DYNAMITING   HOLES. 

The  use  of  dynamite  in  loosening  the  soil  to  a  considerable  depth 
where  trees  are  to  be  planted  is  now  very  general.  A  special  grade 
is  made  for  orchard  work,  and  the  amount  used  in  each  hole 


304  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA 

will  have  to  be  determined  by  trial  and  will  depend  on  the  kind  of 
soil  to  be  treated.  Prom  one-half  to  one  stick  of  25  per  cent  strength 
dynamite,  exploded  from  two  to  three  feet  below  the  surface,  is  effective 
in  the  majority  of  our  soils.  The  work  of  dynamiting  must  de  done, 
in  heavier  soils  at  least,  Avhen  there  is  a  minimum  amount  of  moisture 
present,  or  else  the  soil  may  be  packed  and  the  object  for  which  the 
dynamite  was  used  may  be  defeated.  A  liberal  charge  in  the  bottom 
of  holes  being  dug  will  loosen  the  soil  sufficiently  deep  so  that  drainage 
conditions  will  be  greatly  benefited.  On  some  of  the  California  soils 
where  a  hardpan  exists  within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  surface, 
or  where  soils  are  abnormally  hard,  dynamiting  is  a  necessity  and 
should  never  be  neglected.  On  the  other  hand  our  river  bottom  soils, 
with  their  looser  texture,  greater  depth,  and  perfect  underdrainage  do 
not  require  the  use  of  dynamite. 


PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  305 

CHAPTER  VII. 

SETTING  AND  CARING  FOR  THE  YOUNG  TREES. 

A  tree  that  does  not  start  well  shortly  after  being  set  and  fails  to 
make  a  satisfactory  growth  during  the  first  season  is  liable  to  be  stunted 
always,  hence  the  necessity  for  the  greatest  care  in  making  every  condi- 
tion as  favorable  as  possible  for  the  young  tree  that  has  been  recently 
planted  in  the  orchard.  There  should  always  be  plenty  of  loose  soil  in 
the  bottom  of  the  hole  before  the  tree  is  put  in.  This  should  be  finely 
pulverized,  and  preferably  from  near  the  surface. 

If  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry  during  planting  time  the  trees  must 
be  well  protected  to  prevent  the  roots  from  drying  out.  In  order  to  do 
this,  they  may  be  covered  with  dampened  sacks  or  stood  in  a  barrel 
partly  filled  with  water,  while  being  transported  throughout  the 
orchard.  All  injured  portions  of  roots  should  be  removed  as  well  as 
all  those  that  are  misshaped  and  generally  undesirable.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  tree  is  not  dependent  so  much  upon  the  number 
of  roots  that  it  has  as  on  their  character.  Four  or  five  thrifty  roots 
which  do  not  crowd  each  other  are  preferable  to  a  greater  number  that 
run  criss-cross  and  interfere. 

The  depth  of  planting  should  be  a  trifle  greater  than  the  trees  stood 
in  the  nursery.  The  whole  subject  of  planting  is  so  ably  covered  by 
Mr.  A.  L.  Wisker  in  his  "Planting  Suggestions  to  Orchardists"  that  we 
quote  from  him.  While  his  trees  are  situated  in  a  foothill  section  the 
directions  given  may  in  general  be  followed  elsewhere. 

HOW  TO   PLANT. 

"In  the  average  loose  soil  of  the  foothills,  plant  the  tree  so  that 
it  will  stand  two  or  three  inches  deeper  than  in  the  nursery. 
Usually  this  will  cover  the  point  where  the  bud  was  inserted. 
Budded  trees  are  frequently  curved  at  this  point,  and  the  curve 
should  always  be  set  so  the  two  o'clock  sun  (the  hottest  of  the 
day)  will  shine  against  and  not  into  the  curved  part.  Many 
trees  are  lost  from  sun-scald  every  year  through  neglect  of 
this  precaution.  In  windy  locations,  the  trunk  should  be  inclined 
a  little  toward  the  prevailing  wind.  Spread  the  roots  in  their 
natural  positions,  avoiding  doubling  them,  and  cover  with  the  best 
soil  available.  When  sufficiently  covered  to  be  protected  from 
possible  injury,  pack  the  roots  firmly  in  place  by  treading  with 
both  feet,  remembering  that  the  tree  can  not  possibly  absorb  the 
plant  food  in  the  soil  unless  the  roots  are  brought  into  the  closest 
possible  contact,  and  that  this  part  of  the  work  is  the  most 
important  thing  in  planting.  Fill  hole  nearly  full  and  again 
tramp  firmly,  after  which  the  hole  is  to  be  filled  so  the  soil  will 
stand  an  inch  or  so  above  the  surface.  The  top  soil  must  never 
be  packed,  and  should  always  be  kept  loose  during  the  growing 
season ;  it  is  extremely  risky  to  place  manure  or  any  of  the  ordinary 
fertilizers  in  the  hole  with  the  tree,  but  old  bones  or  bone  meal 

87 


306  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

are  a  benefit  if  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and  covered 
lightly  with  soil.  If  manure  is  to  be  had  it  should  be  spread  in 
a  circle  on  the  surface  around  the  tree,  where  it  serves  both  as 
a  fertilizer  and  a  mulch  to  retain  moisture.  During  the  first 
few  seasons  of  the  young  tree's  growth  it  is  an  advantage  to  apply 
nitrate  of  soda  to  the  soil,  unless  the  land  is  known  to  be  rich. 
For  the  first  application  four  to  six  ounces  will  be  the  right 
quantity.  This  should  be  spread  on  the  surface  in  a  circle  about 
eight  inches  from  the  tree  when  the  young  leaves  are  about  the 
size  of  a  man's  thumbnail,  and  while  considerable  rain  is  yet  to 
be  expected.  This  fertilizer  is  soluble  and  will  be  carried  to  the 
roots  by  the  rains.  It  is  as  caustic  as  lye,  and  must  not  be  per- 
mitted to  come  in  contact  with  the  tree  or  great  injury  will  result. 
Unless  the  soil  is  impoverished,  nitrate  will  hardly  be  required 
beyond  the  second  year,  except  in  the  case  of  some  tree  that  is 
lagging  behind.  Too  much  nitrate  stimulates  rank,  soft,  sappy 
growth  and  is  undesirable,  while  late  applications  keep  the  tree 
active  too  late  in  the  season.  To  apply  nitrate  after  the  spring 
rains  are  over  is  throwing  your  money  away." 

WATERING  THE  YOUNG  TREE. 

In  order  that  the  root  system  of  a  newly  set  tree  may  become  estab- 
lished quickly,  and  perform  the  functions  of  growth  necessary  to  life, 
it  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  dry,  and  the  soil  at  all  times  should 
have  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture.  While  this  moisture  must  not 
be  excessive  for  any  length  of  time,  the  newly  planted  tree  is  better 
off  for  a  good  soaking.  If  planted  in  furrows  the  irrigation  water 
may  be  run  through  these  furrows,  thus  coming  in  direct  contact  with 
the  trees.  By  filling  in  the  furrows  immediately  after  watering  and 
cultivating  the  surface  as  soon  as  it  becomes  dry  enough  to  do  so,  the 
moisture  will  be  retained  much  longer  than  where  the  furrows  are 
left  open,  and  there  will  be  no  baking  of  the  surface  of  the  soil  which 
is  always  objectionable.  After  the  first  watering  the  soil  should  be 
kept  as  uniformly  moist  as  possible  by  applications  of  irrigation  water 
when  needed,  or  by  frequent  cultivation  to  conserve  the  supply  already 
present. 

TREE  PROTECTORS. 

Immediately  after  being  set  in  the  orchard  the  young  pear  trees 
should  have  their  trunks  protected  by  means  of  yucca,  stiff  paper,  or 
other  protectors,  of  which  there  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  on 
the  market.  These  will  prevent  sun-scald  and  the  so-called  sun  borers 
which  usually  accompany  it,  and  in  addition  will  keep  the  rabbits  from 
gnawing  the  bark  and  girdling  the  trees. 

Black  colored  protectors  should  not  be  used  as  there  is  sometimes 
severe  scalding  in  hot  sections  because  of  the  absorption  of  the  sun's 
rays  on  account  of  the  color.  Such  injury  to  pear  trees  has  never 
been  called  to  the  writer's  attention,  but  in  one  instance  a  young  olive 
orchard  with  black  paper  protectors  about  the  trunks  was  observed, 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


307 


FIG. 


113.     Yucca  tree  protectors  on  young  pear  trees  to  prevent  sun  scald  and 
injury  from  rabbits. 


and  many  trees  were  injured  by  scalding  on  the  south  side  under- 
neath the  paper.  This  injury  was  noted  in  a  hot  section  shortly  after 
an  exceedingly  hot  spell  in  the  summer.  No  doubt  similar  injury  would 
result  to  pears  under  like  conditions.  The  danger  would  be  greatly 
minimized  in  sections  of  the  state  that  are  not  subject  to  excessive 
conditions  of  heat  during  the  summer  time.  Whitewash  applied  with 
a  brush  to  the  trunks  is  a  valuable  sun-scald  preventive,  and  has 
much  value  in  repelling  the  attack  of  rabbits,  if  combined  with  aloes. 
It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to  make  a  whitewash  sufficiently  adhesive 
during  the  rainy  season  to  remain  long  on  the  trees. 

Sun-scald  may  be  prevented  by  a  stake,  board  or  other  object  driven 
into  the  ground  on  the  south  side  of  a  tree,  and  in  sections  where 
rabbits  are  not  troublesome  this  method  is  often  used  by  the  orchardists. 
If  rabbits  and  not  sun-scald  have  to  be  considered  a  cylinder  of  a  small 
mesh  of  woven  wire,  placed  around  the  trees,  can  be  used  very  success- 
fully. Poultry  netting  of  1-inch  mesh  made  of  No.  20  galvanized  wire, 
is  recommended. 

In  sections  where  snowstorms  occur  in  winter,  and  the  ground  is  apt 
to  be  covered  with  the  snow  for  days  at  a  time,  there  is  great  danger  of 
scalding  from  the  sun 's  rays  reflected  from  the  snow.  Trees  in  all  such 
sections  should  be  protected  by  any  of  the  methods  for  preventing  sun- 
scald,  that  have  been  mentioned. 


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PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PRUNING. 

FIRST  SEASON. 

The  young  trees,  whether  one  or  two  years  of  age,  should  always  be 
pruned  when  set  in  the  orchard.  If  one  year  old  they  will  have  few,  if 
any,  branches.  In  cases  where  there  are  none  it  is  only  necessary  to  cut 
back  the  top  to  a  height  of  about  20  inches,  depending  upon  the  desired 
height  of  head.  Two-year-old  trees  may  have  all  the  branches  removed 
at  planting,  or  they  may  have  from  three  to  five  left  as  a  framework 


FIG.  114.  Pear  tree  which  has  been 
summer  pruned.  Note  the  splendid  place- 
ment of  branches. 


FIG.  115.     Extreme  type  of  upright 
growth  in  young  Bartlett  pear. 


for  the  future  tree.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  remove  all  branches  and  start 
with  a  whip  which  under  all  ordinary  conditions  will  develop  sufficient 
branches  so  that  a  desirable  framework  may  be  selected  at  the  beginning 
of  the  second  season  if  not  before.  This  brings  up  the  matter  of  summer 
pruning  during  the  first  season.  From  work  of  this  nature  that  has  been 
seen  in  various  places  it  has  been  concluded  that  the  summer  season 

90 


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309 


offers  the  best  opportunity  for  developing  a  favorable  type  of  head,  and 
the  opinion  is  expressed  that  we  have  only  begun  to  know  the  value  of 
summer  pruning,  and  as  time  goes  on  more  and  more  of  it  will  be  done. 
There  are  two  main  advantages  to  be  gained  by  summer  cutting  of  the 
tree  the  first  season.  In  the  first  place  the  upright  growing  tendency 
can  be  very  largely  overcome  and  a  system  of  laterals  developed  which 
will  give  the  tree  a  good  spread.  Secondly  all  surplus  branches  can  be 
removed  and  the  growth  of  the  most  desirable  branches  for  the  frame- 
work can  be  encouraged.  Fig.  114  shows  a  summer-pruned  tree  in  the 
Rio  Linda  section  of  Sacramento  County.  Note  the  wonderful  spread 
of  branches,  the  uniform  size  and  the  proper  spacing  along  the  trunk. 
These  trees  were  pruned  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Fred  C.  Brosius 
County  Horticultural  Commissioner,  Sacramento.  The  work  was'  done 


FIG.    116.      Correct  number  of  branches  to  form  the  framework  but  poorly 
placed,  making  bad  crotches. 

during  the  month  of  July  after  the  growth  had  attained  consider- 
able length.  A  foot  or  more  was  frequently  removed,  and  from 
6  to  12  inches  left.  Care  was  taken  to  cut  just  above  an  outside  bud  in 
every  case  where  it  was  desired  to  increase  the  spread  of  the  branches. 
Careful  attention  to  this  little  detail  will  mean  much  toward  securing 
the  best  type  of  head  for  the  Bartlett  variety,  in  fact  all  varieties  except 
a  few  that  are  exceptional  in  that  they  have  a  natural  tendency  to 
spread.  In  Fig.  115  the  extreme  type  of  upright  tree  is  shown.  Sum- 
mer pruning  will  correct  this  fault  better  than  dormant  pruning. 


n 


310 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


SECOND  SEASON. 


The  beginning  of  the  second  season  should  find  the  trees  with  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  lateral  branches  to  form  the  scaffold  or  framework.  In 
cases  where  summer  pruning  has  been  carefully  done  there  should  be 
somewhere  near  the  proper  number  of  branches  to  start  with.  This 
number  should  be  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than  five.  The  latter  is 
the  favorite  number  with  most  orchardists,  however,  just  as  large  and 
just  as  good  a  tree  can  be  builded  with  a  framework  of  three  branches 
as  with  five.  The  mean  between  these  two  figures  is  often  chosen  and 
many  orchards  are  started  with  four  scaffold  branches.  A  certain 
amount  of  cutting  back  will  again  be  necessary  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  season  while  trees  are  still  dormant.  This  amount  will  depend 


FIG.   117.     Too  many  branches  forming  the  framework. 

largely  upon  the  summer  pruning.  If  this  work  was  successful  in  check- 
ing a  rank  growth  very  little  cutting  back  may  be  necessary.  If  it  was 
done  too  early,  or  for  some  other  reason  failed  to  bring  the  desired 
results,  or  no  summer  pruning  was  practiced,  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut 
away  considerable  wood.  Each  scaffold  branch  should  be  left  at  least 
10  or  12  inches  long,  the  rest  of  the  growth  being  sacrificed  as  super- 
fluous. This  heavy  cutting  back  tends  toward  stockiness,  which  is  much 
to  be  preferred  to  slender,  willow-like  gowth. 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


311 


THIRD  SEASON. 

In  most  cases  the  three  or  more  scaffold  branches  that  were  left  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  season  will  have  developed  several  laterals  and 
the  third  season  it  is  necessary  to  select  such  of  these  as  will  be  necessary 
to  add  another  suitable  story  to  the  framework.  From  two  to  three 
main  branches  emanating  from  each  of  the  scaffold  limbs,  well  placed 
to  balance  the  head,  are  desirable.  These  should  form  a  symmetrical 
top  capable  of  bearing  the  maximum  amount  of  fruit.  As  with  practi- 
cally all  of  our  fruit  trees,  the  open  type  head  is  best  as  it  allows  plenty 
of  sunlight  to  enter  and  abundant  room  for  the  branches  to  develop 


FIG.  118.  Rank  and  upright  tendency 
of  growth  of  Bartlett,  yet  a  good  supply 
of  laterals.  (Photo  by  D.  W.  Pitts.) 


FIG.  119.  Same  tree  as  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  118,  after  removing  the  central  upright 
branches.  (Photo  by  D.  W.  Pitts.) 


without  crowding.  Interfering  branches  or  any  that  are  liable  to  inter- 
fere during  the  season's  growth  should  be  removed.  Cutting  back  to 
keep  the  tree  from  attaining  too  great  a  height  is  always  necessary. 
From  the  third  season  on,  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  cutting  out 
branches  that  are  liable,  if  left,  to  need  removal  a  few  years  later.  Cut- 
ting away  big  branches  is  always  attendant  with  dangers,  and  the 
pruner  who  studies  his  trees  with  the  idea  of  preventing  crowding  of 
branches  in  later  years  so  that  heavy  pruning  will  be  unnecessary  is  the 
most  successful  man  in  his  work. 


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PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Summer  pruning  is  desirable  during  the  third  season's  growth  as  well 
as  during  the  two  previous  seasons.  The  upright  growing  tendency  of 
varieties  of  pears,  such  as  the  Bartlett,  requires  vigilance  if  it  is  over- 
come, and  nothing  will  contribute  more  to  the  success  of  spreading  the 
head  than  intelligent,  careful  cutting  during  the  summer  time. 

FOURTH   AND  FIFTH   SEASONS. 

The  instructions  given  for  pruning  during  the  first,  second  and  third 
seasons  of  growth  are  designed  to  develop  a  tree  with  strong  scaffold 
branches,  thrifty  growth,  well-balanced  head,  and  wide-spreading 
branches  possessing  sufficient  stocldness  to  hold  up  a  load  of  fruit  with- 
out danger  of  breakage  and  without  need  of  propping.  The  fourth  and 


1 


FIG.  120. 


Well-pruned  Bartlett  pear  tree.     Fruit  on  trees  of  this  character 
can  be  easily  sprayed  and  easily  picked. 


fifth  seasons'  pruning  should  be  done  with  the  idea  of  maintaining  all 
these  desirable  characteristics.  It  will  again  be  necessary  to  remove 
many  small,  interfering  branches,  and  shortening  or  heading  back 
should  be  continued.  This  should  not  be  carried  to  the  extreme  and 
practically  all  shortening  of  branches  should  be  confined  to  the  cutting 
of  one-year-old  growth.  Upright  branches  will  frequently  have  to  be 
sacrificed  for  laterals  chosen  to  develop  the  spreading  type  of  head. 
Cutting  should  be  carefully  done,  and  except  where  cuts  are  made  in 
one-year-old  branches  it  is  best  to  cut  close  to  a  branch  in  order  that 
there  may  be  no  stubs  and  no  wounds  that  will  not  heal  quickly.  Sum- 
mer pruning  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  seasons'  growth  will  have  a 
tendency  to  force  the  development  of  fruit  spurs.  This  .is  desirable  in 


94 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


313 


the  case  of  varieties  that  do  not  possess  a  heavy-bearing  tendency,  and 
may  be  practiced  with  all  varieties  to  possible  advantage,  at  least  with 
no  resultant  injury.  About  the  fifth  season  pear  blight  very  often 
makes  its  appearance.  A  most  careful  watch  must  be  kept  for  this  dis- 
ease at  all  times  when  pruning  is  being  done.  If  any  cases  are 
discovered  the  treatment  outlined  in  the  chapter  on  Pear  Blight 
becomes  necessary. 

MATURE  TREES. 

The  pruning  of  mature  trees  is  not  at  all  difficult  if  the  first  five  years ' 
work  has  been  done  intelligently  and  well.  The  tree  enters  the  sixth 
year  with  a  good  shape,  and  later  prunings  are  done  to  keep  the  head 
open,  to  prevent  the  tree  from  getting  too  high,  to  develop  fruiting 
wood,  to  facilitate  spraying  and  picking,  and  to  remove  blighted  and 
dead  wood.  On  account  of  the  blight  the  idea  of  developing  fruit  spurs 
from  the  trunk  and  low  down  on  larger  limbs  has  been  discouraged. 


FIG.   121.     Redevelop 


ng  fruiting  wood  low  down  on  the  trunks  of  trees  which 
have  at  one  time  been  stripped. 

95 


314  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

There  are  so  many  cases  of  blossom  infection  and  the  killing  of  fruiting 
twigs  that  it  is  argued  that  the  fruit  should  be  allowed  to  grow  on  the 
smaller  branches,  remote  from  the  trunk  and  larger  limbs,  in  order  that 
the  chances  of  blight  getting  into  the  big  wood  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  In  other  words  the  trees  are  stripped  clean  from  the  ground 
to  some  distance  above  the  crotches  and  no  spurs  are  allowed  to  grow 
except  on  the  smaller  branches.  While  this  reasoning  is  sound,  a  few 
of  the  better  pear  growers  are  allowing  new  wood  to  develop  from 
trunks  and  larger  branches  which  at  one  time  were  stripped,  with  the 
idea  of  increasing  the  production  of  the  trees.  Fig.  121  illustrates  this 
point.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  this  method  is  safe  enough  to  be  recom- 
mended generally  and  while  there  is  no  question  about  the  increased 
productivity  of  the  trees  which  are  allowed  to  develop  these  lower 
branches,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  increase  in  pears  will  be  sufficient  to  pay 
for  the  extra  work  necessary  in  cutting  out  blight,  for  it  is  sure  to  get 
into  the  trunks  when  it  would  not  get  started  were  it  not  for  smaller 
infected  branches  developing  the  disease  and  leading  it  in.  However, 
the  danger  is  minimized  in  orchards  where  a  continual,  systematic  and 
intelligent  fight  is  being  made  against  this  disease,  and  it  is  probable 
that  there  are  growers  who  can  make  their  trees  pay  more  by  the  method 
outlined.  In  the  case  of  the  inexperienced  grower  or  the  grower  who 
fights  blight  occasionally  or  when  he  is  forced  to  do  so,  no  chances  of  this 
kind  should  be  taken.  Generally  speaking  any  growth  from  below  the 
crotches  should  be  removed  in  pruning,  including  the  water  sprouts  or 
suckers  that  come  from  the  seedling  root  below  the  crown.  Also  any 
succulent  growth  emanating  from  the  larger  limbs  for  some  distance 
above  the  crotches  should  be  removed  unless  such  growth  may  be  made 
to  serve  a  useful  purpose. 

The  practice  of  cutting  out  water  sprouts  each  season,  regardless  01 
whether  or  not  anything  else  in  the  way  of  pruning  is  attempted  can 
not  always  be  recommended.  Water  sprouts  are  only  branches  that  have 
made  a  very  rapid  growth  without  the  development  of  laterals  or  even 
thrifty  buds.  If  left  in  the  tree  the  second  season 's  growth  may  be  very 
slight  and  they  will  develop  into  branches  having  the  same  fruit-bearing 
possibilities  as  any  other  branches  of  the  tree.  Cutting  them  back  to 
lengths  of  a  foot  or  less  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  development  of  fruit 
spurs  close  in  to  the  trunk.  If  this  cutting  back  is  done  during  the 
summer  season  the  tendency  is  increased,  and  in  some  orchards  such 
pruning  is  desirable. 

Heading  back  small  branches  from  the  ends  to  prevent  too  long  a 
growth  should  be  practiced.  Propping  becomes  necessary  when  this 
important  part  of  the  pruning  operation  is  neglected.  Short,  stocky 
branches,  well  supplied  with  fruit  spurs  are  the  most  desirable.  A 
knowledge  of  the  fruit-bearing  habits  of  a  tree  is  necessary  to  intelligent 
and  most  successful  pruning.  The  pear  bears  most  of  its  fruit  on  short 
spurs  (see  Fig.  122),  which  live  year  after  year,  producing  each  season 
with  little  growth,  but  always  forming  new  buds  for  another  crop.  The 
pruning  away  of  spurs  may  be  practiced  for  the  purpose  of  thinning  a 
crop,  but  oftener  it  is  necessary  to  encourage  their  development.  The 
fruit  buds  of  such  spurs  may  be  distinguished  from  the  leaf  buds  because 


I'KAR    GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


315 


of  their  plump,  more  or  less  roundish  appearance,  the  leaf  buds  being 
more  pointed  and  more  slender. 

The  intelligent  primer  will  study  the  growth  of  his  trees  carefully, 
noting  the  varying  habits  of  the  different  varieties,  and  will  prune 
according  to  the  needs  of  each  variety  as  grown  under  the  conditions 
existing  in  his  orchard.  Only  a  few  general  rules  can  be  laid  down  in 
regard  to  pruning,  and  these  can  be  modified  to  conform  to  all  conditions. 
Specific  instructions  can  not  be  intelligently  given  on  paper  and  it  is 
necessary  for  each  orchardist  to  determine  the  needs  of  his  trees  and 
act  accordingly. 


FIG.   122.     F'ruiting  spurs  on  Bartlett  pear 
tree. 


TREATMENT  OF  WOUNDS. 

Small  wounds  that  result  from  cutting  young  growth  do  not  need  any 
treatment  except  when  pruning  is  done  to  remove  pear  blight  as 
explained  in  chapter  on  that  disease.  In  the  case  of  wounds  following 
the  removal  of  large  branches  it  is  important  that  healing  should  take 
place  promptly  and  that  the  wounds  should  be  completely  covered  by  a 
new  growth  of  bark  at  the  earliest  possible  date.  There  are  various  wood 
rots  due  to  fungi  which  often  cause  trouble.  While  the  pear  is  not  as 
subject  to  wood-rot  troubles  as  other  deciduous  fruit  trees,  in  order  that 
as  few  chances  as  possible  may  be  taken,  there  should  be  no  stubs  left 
in  pruning.  Cuts  should  be  made  parallel  and  close  up  to  the  branch 
from  which  another  branch  has  been  removed.  It  is  obvious  that  as 
wood  rot  is  due  to  fungi,  disinfection  of  wounds  is  very  important.  The 
common  practice  in  the  past  has  been  to  treat  pruning  wounds  with 
common  lead  paint,  or  in  late  years  with  C  or  D  grade  asphaltum. 


7_37406 


91 


316 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Some  very  careful  experiments  have  been  conducted  at  Watsonville  by 
W.  H.  Volck,  County  Horticultural  Commissioner  of  Santa  Cruz 
County,*  which  show  that  in  the  case  of  the  apple  these  materials, 
instead  of  protecting  the  cuts  against  wood  rot,  make  conditions  ideal 
for  the  development  of  the  fungus  (Polystictus  sp.).  Treating  of  this 
subject  of  wound  protection  against  wood  rot  in  the  article  referred  to  in 
the  footnote,  Mr.  Volck  stated  as  follows:  "Formerly  such  treatment 


FIG.   123.     Undesirable  stub  left  in  FIG.  123a.     Desirable  cut  made  in  removing 


pruning. 


stub  shown  in  Fig.  123.        (After  W.  H.  Volck.) 


consisted  in  the  application  of  some  kind  of  paint  to  the  entire  surface 
of  the  cut.  This  painting  appeared  to  be  the  proper  thing  in  that  the  cut 
could  be  sealed,  thus  presumably  protecting  it  from  infection.  In  this 
it  failed,  however,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  sap  pressure  behind  the 
painted  surface  is  nearly  always  sufficient  to  rupture  it.  At  the  same 
time  the  paint  retains  enough  of  the  sap  to  keep  the  wood  saturated 
and  provides  an  excellent  medium  for  the  growth  of  wood-rot  fungus. 
It  so  happens  that  the  most  impervious  paints  have  proved  to  be  the 
poorest  protection  against  wood-rot  infection."  The  method  of  treat- 
ment that  has  proven  satisfactory  in  Mr.  Volck 's  experiment  is  outlined 
briefly  as  follows:  First  of  all  the  cut  must  be  made  properly,  as  no 
amount  of  treatment  will  prevent  the  rotting  of  a  stub.  The  smooth 
close-in  cut,  as  soon  as  it  is  made,  is  covered  over  on  the  edge  or  bark 
iayer  with  a  thick  coating  of  asphaltum-paraffine  grafting  wax,  to  pre- 
vent the  drying  out  of  the  cut  surface,  and  the  dying  of  the  bark,  giving 
it  a  chance  to  begin  the  healing  process  immediately.  Most  of  the  wood 
is  left  uncovered,  and  driven  full  of  copper  nails  or  tacks  which  are 

*W.   H.   Volck— Article  Monthly  Bulletin,   State  Commission  of  Horticulture,   Vol. 
VI,  Nos.  3  and  4,  "Pruning  Fruit  Trees  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Apple." 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


317 


left  in  the  wood  permanently,  and  which  disinfect  the  wound  as  they 
gradually  go  into  solution.  After  treatment  of  the  outside  portions  of 
the  cut  with  the  asphaltum-paraffine  mixture1  and  the  insertion  of  the 
nails  into  the  wood,  the  entire  surface  of  the  cut  is  covered  with 
Bordeaux  whitewash.2  In  addition  to  the  use  of  copper  nails  a 
copper  screen  was  tacked  over  the  wood  of.  the  cut.  This  is  recom- 


FIG.  124.  The  same  cut  shown  in 
Fig.  123,  with  the  bark  layer  covered 
with  a  thick  coating  of  asphaltum.  The 
exposed  surface  of  the  cut  has  been 
driven  full  of  copper  nails  or  tacks. 
(After  W.  H.  Volck.) 


FIG.  125.  Same  as  F'ig. 
124,  with  the  additional 
leature  of  a  copper  wire 
screen  as  further  protec- 
tion against  rot  fungi. 
(After  W.  H.  Volck.) 


mended  as  a  supplementary  treatment  and  in  the  case  of  large  cuts 
becomes  almost  a  necessity. 

While  Mr.  Volck 's  experiments  were  conducted  with  apple  trees, 
the  principles  involved  in  pruning  apples  are  the  same  as  in  the  case 
of  all  other  trees,  and  his  treatment  which  has  been  so  satisfactory  in 
the  apple  orchards  will,  without  doubt,  be  satisfactory  with  all  other 
fruit  trees  that  are  subject  to  wood  rot  from  infections  in  pruning 
wounds.  The  fact  can  not  be  over  emphasized  that  no  treatment  of 
the  end  of  a  stub,  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  left  by  careless  pruners, 
can  be  of  any  value  whatever,  and  the  treatment  outlined  is  to  be 
used  only  in  cases  of  properly-made  cuts.  Many  an  orchard  is  ruined 
beyond  recovery  by  careless  pruning.  There  can  be  no  healing  of 
stubs  without  the  return  flow  of  sap  from  the  leaves,  and  this  sap 
when  on  its  downward  course  can  not  reach  the  ends  of  stubs  that 
have  been  left,  consequently  there  will  be  no  healing;  drying  out  will 

'Asphaltum-paraffine  grafting  wax  is  composed  of  (D)  grade  asphaltum  and 
paraffine  wax  at  the  rate  of  8  parts  of  asphaltum  to  2  parts  of  paraffine  by  weight. 
These  ingredients  are  melted  together  until  thoroughly  mixed. 

2Bordeaux  whitewash  used  by  Mr.  Volck  was  made  by  thinning  commercial  Bor- 
deaux paste  with  suitable  quantities  of  water. 


318 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


take  place  and  finally  wood-rot  fungi  will  gain  entrance  and  cause 
decay.  It  is  true  that  pear  trees  will  stand  more  abuse  in  pruning 
than  any  other  kind  of  deciduous  trees.  Nevertheless  the  same  general 
principles  apply  to  all  and  despite  the  hardiness  and  ability  of  the 
pear  to  recuperate  after  an  injury,  the  same  care  necessary  with  other 
trees  will  pay  when  given  to  the  pear. 

An  illustration  of  the  amount  of  abuse  the  pear  may  undergo  and 
still  produce  good  crops  of  fruit  may  be  seen  in  Fig  126.    At  one  time 


FIG.  126.     Bartlett  pear  tree,  the  heart  of  which  has  rotted  and  been  removed 
some  years  after  pear  blight  control  work. 

this  tree  had  a  bad  attack  of  blight  making  it  necessary  to  remove 
practically  all  of  the  bark  from  one  side  of  the  trunk.  Despite  the 
fact  that  paint  was  used  over  the  entire  injured  surface,  in  seven 
years'  time  decay  had  destroyed  the  exposed  wood  and  after  it  was 
removed  there  remained  nothing  but  a  shell  of  the  original  tree.  Even 
the  roots  on  one  side  were  cut  away  so  that  from  a  height  of  about 
five  feet  above  the  ground  to  the  crown  the  heart  of  the  tree  was 
chiseled  away  and  most  of  the  root  system  on  the  same  side  was  sacri- 
ficed. Despite  this  fact  the  tree  is  still  living,  and  annually  produces 
a  good  crop  of  fruit  that  pays  well  for  the  effort  and  expense  that 
were  necessary  to  save  it.  • 

PRUNING  TOOLS. 

The  best  general  purpose  pruning  tool  is  a  small  hand  shears.  In 
pruning  young  trees  up  to  the  age  pf  five  years  there  is  little  need  for 
anything  else  providing  the  work  has  been  well  done  each  season  and 
there  are  no  heavy  branches  to  be  removed.  A  larger,  stronger,  two- 
handed  shears  is  sometimes  used.  This  type  of  shears  is  awkward  to 
handle  and  is  not  generally  used,  but  has  a  place  in  the  pruning 


100 


I'KAK    (iROWlXG    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


319 


FIG.  127.     The  same  tree  shown  in  Fig.  126,  photographed  at  close  range.     Indistinctly 
the  heavy  crop  of  fruit  which  it  is  still  capable  of  producing  may  be  seen. 


101 


320  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

equipment  as  it  is  valuable  in  quickly  removing  branches  of  consider- 
able size;  however,  in  every  case  a  saw  will  serve  the  purpose  practi- 
cally or  just  as  well,  and  many  orchardists  depend  upon  the  use  of 
the  small  hand  shears  and  a  saw. 

In  blight  work  other  types  of  tools  are  needed.  Some  of  these  are 
shown  in  the  chapter  on  blight.  Another  type  of  pruning  shears  or 
hook  sometimes  used  consists  of  a  movable  cutting  blade  set  at  an 
angle  in  a  hook  in  the  end  of  a  long  handle  (eight  feet  or  more).  The 
blade  is  operated  by  means  of  a  hand  lever  connected  with  the  blade 
by  a  metal  rod  running  along  the  side  of  the  handle.  In  pruning 
shade  trees  this  type  of  shears  has  its  place.  In  the  orchard  it  can 
not  be  recommended.  It  is  especially  undesirable  in  the  case  of  pear 
trees  on  account  of  the  blight  and  the  necessity  for  making  each  cut 
with  care  and  knowing  whether  or  not  blight  is  present  in  the  branch 
removed,  and  if  present  whether  or  not  it  has  all  been  removed.  This 
is  not  always  possible  when  working  at  long  range. 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


321 


CHAPTER   IX. 

IRRIGATION,  CULTIVATION,  COVER  CROPS,  FERTILIZERS, 

INTERCROPS. 

In  an  arid  summer  climate  such  as  that  of  California  irrigation  is 
desirable  in  every  case  where  conditions  are  not  such  that  there  is  a 
natural  subirrigation.  The  pear  orchards  of  the  Sacramento  River 
section,  which  at  one  time  were  not  watered  because  it  was  not  thought 
necessary,  are  practically  all  irrigated  now,  with  splendid  results. 
Without  irrigation  these  orchards  will  produce,  but  neither  the  trees 
nor  the  pears  will  attain  the  size  and  quality  that  they  do  with  irriga- 
tion. Fig.  128  shows  the  general  method  of  pumping  the  water  from 
the  Sacramento  River  for  irrigation  of  pears.  This  picture  was  taken 
on  the  E.  A.  Gammon  place  at  Hood.  Mr.  Gammon,  who  at  one  time 


FIG.  128.     Centrifugal  pump  and  discharge  pipe  which  carries  water  from  the 
Sacramento  River  over  a  levee  into  a  pear  orchard. 

grew  pears  without  irrigation,  can  now  testify  to  its  value,  and  a  great 
increase  in  crops  because  of  the  installation  of  a  pump  and  irrigation 
system. 

METHODS. 

The  water  is  carried  to  the  orchards  in  gravity  canals,  or  raised  from 
the  river,  or  wells,  by  means  of  centrifugal  pumps  operated  by  electric 
motors.  Either  the  furrow  or  basin  method  of  irrigation  is  used.  The 
first  method  requires  a  series  of  parallel  ditches,  generally  about  four, 
between  two  tree  rows.  These  can  be  made  with  a  plow,  cultivator  or 
small  ditching  tool.  Small  heads  of  water  run  in  such  ditches  for  about 

103 


322  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

twenty-four  houys,  the  time  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  soil, 
will  usually  result  in  a  good  irrigation.  Deep  ditches  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  shallow,  especially  on  heavy  soils  which  are  more  or  less 
impervious.  To  prevent  washing  the  furrows  are  sometimes  curved. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  run  them  around  the  trees  thus  insuring 
better  wetting  of  the  entire  root  system. 

The  basin  system  is  used  generally  in  the  large  pear  growing  districts 
of  the  Sacramento  Valley.  This  is  a  flooding  system  by  means  of 
small  levees  constructed  at  right  angles  to  each  other  between  the  tree 
rows,  forming  square  or  rectangular  basins  in  which  the  water  is 
allowed  to  remain  for  the  desired  time.  On  the  lighter  types  of  soils, 
at  least,  this  system  is  quite  satisfactory.  In  order  to  prevent  baking 
the  cultivator  must  be  used  after  irrigation  by  the  basin  method.  This 
is  particularly  necessary  in  the  case  of  heavy  soils.  If  the  cultivator  is 
not  used,  the  soil  bakes  and  cracks,  the  moisture  is  rapidly  lost,  and 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  impaired.  No  stated  time  can  be 
given  for  the  application  of  water.  If  the  supply  is  plentiful  it  should 
be  used  only  when  an  examination  of  the  soil  reveals  the  need.  In  some 
cases  irrigation  will  necessarily  have  to  be  done  when  water  is  available. 
In  general  two  or  three  irrigations  throughout  the  season  -are  desirable. 

CULTIVATION. 

Successful  pear  growing  is  accomplished  in  parts  of  California 
without  irrigation  where  it  has  not  been  possible  to  develop  a  supply  of 
water.  The  conservation  of  moisture  in  such  cases  is  the  prime 
requisite  of  success.  There  is  nothing  else  that  will  conserve  the  mois- 
ture as  well  as  frequent  cultivation,  whereby  the  soil  is  rendered  fine  on 
the  surface.  A  dust  mulch,  five  or  six  inches  deep,  should  be  the  aim  in 
cultivating  such  orchards.  By  using  the  cultivator  once  a  week  or 
oftener  the  capillarity  of  the  soil  is  broken  and  the  moisture  thus 
prevented  from  reaching  the  surface  and  being  lost  through  evapora- 
tion. Cultivation,  while  being  necessary  in  this  case,  is  also  desirable 
in  keeping  down  weeds,  which  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  when 
there  is  a  scarcity  of  moisture  and  the  trees  need  all  that  the  ground 
contains.  Too  little  cultivation  is  given  most  of  the  unirrigated 
orchards  and  the  loss  of  moisture  and  suffering  of  trees  from  drought 
in  the  fall  of  the  year,  which  is  so  evident  at  certain  times,  could  be 
prevented  by  judicious  cultivation.  The  principle  involved,  while 
simple,  is  little  understood  by  many  orchardists  and  there  is  a  prev- 
alent notion  that  less  moisture  is  lost  if  there  is  no  cultivation. 

COVER  CROPS. 

The  subject  of  cover  crops  is  one  of  great  importance  in  every 
orchard  community,  and  the  requirements  are  practically  the  same  for 
the  pear  orchard  as  for  all  other  orchards.  In  California  a  fortunate 
condition  exists  that  does  not  apply  to  the  other  states  of  the  Union. 
That  is,  during  the  winter  or  rainy  season  cover  crops  may  be  grown  in 
the  orchard  to  good  advantage.  This  is  not  true  in  all  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia but  is  true  in  the  main  pear  growing  sections,  where  frequently 
burr  clover  grows  luxuriantly  with  little  or  no  attention.  Humus 

104 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


323 


being  scarce  in  soils  of  all  arid  sections  the  cover  crop  is  needed 
especially  to  supply  this  very  desirable  part  of  a  fertile  soil.  While  a 
heavy  growth  of  wheat,  rye.  or  barley  will,  when  plowed  under,  result 
in  the  formation  of  humus,  there  is  nothing  more  satisfactory  than 
leguminous  cover  crops. 

Failure  to  grow  a  satisfactory  cover  crop  is  often  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  seed  of  Mdilftlux  imlim,  or  whatever  other  crop  is  used,  is  sown  in 
the  fall  in  ground  that  is  dry,  and  a  lack  of  moisture  may  exist  for 
weeks  or  months  after  sowing.  It  is  very  important,  to  prevent  a.  poor 
crop  or  an  entire  loss  from  drought  conditions,  to  irrigate  the  land 
before  the  cover  crop  is  sown.  Whenever  irrigation  water  can  be 
secured  its  use  will  abundantly  repay  the  effort  and  expense  of  appli- 
cation. 


LEGUMES. 

Since  the  discovery  that  plants  belonging  to  the  family  LeguminosaB 
have  the  power,  through  the  agency  of  bacteria  occurring  in  nodules 
on  the  roots,  of  drawing  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  adding  it 
to  the  soil,  all  plants  belonging  to  this  family  have  become  recognized 
as  being  of  extreme  value  as  cover  crops.  This  is  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  nitrogen  in  our  orchard  soils  in  general.  Burr  clover, 
which  grows  so  commonly  throughout  the  northern  part  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  a  very  satisfactory  legume  for  orchard  cover  crop  purposes. 
In  many  places  it  grows  wild  and  makes  a  dense  crop.  Sweet 
clover  (Mel  Hot  us  indica)  is  used  commonly  in  orchards  of  southern 
California  and  is  gradually  becoming  recognized  as  one  of  the  best 
legumes  for  the  north.  Another  satisfactory  legume  for  the  northern 


FIG.  129.     A  good  cover  crop  of  hairy  vetch,  Vicia  villosa,  growing  in  a  Santa 
Clara  Valley  orchard. 


324  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

pear  districts  is  vetch.  The  two  species  commonly  used  are  hairy 
vetch  (yicia  villosa)  and  purple  vetch-  (Vicia  atropurpurea ) .  This 
plant  thrives  well  'under  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  average  winter 
and  makes  a  splendid  growth  to  plow  under  in  the  spring.  See  Fig.  129. 
It  is  sown  in  the  fall,  preferably  before  the  rainy  season  begins,  and 
grows  throughout  the  winter.  Plowing  may  be  done  any  time  in  the 
early  spring  when  the  growth  of  the  plant  has  become  satisfactory. 

If  cover  crops  are  desired  during  the  summer  season  their  use 
will  depend  principally  upon  the  availability  of  a  sufficient  supply 
of  water  for  irrigation.  Clovers,  vetches,  beans  and  peas  of  any  kind 
that  will  do  well  under  the  existing  conditions  may  be  used.  Alfalfa  is 
frequently  sowed  as  a  cover  crop.  Where  the  supply  of  irrigation 
water  is  great  enough  to  insure  against  either  the  trees  or  the  alfalfa 
becoming  too  dry  there  is  no  better  cover  crop  when  not  grown  too 
long.  Alfalfa  being  a  perennial  plant,  there  is  always  a  tendency 
to  leave  it  in  the  orchard  too  long  after  planting,  cutting  it  several 
times  each  season  for  hay,  to  the  possible  detriment  of  the  trees.  There 
have  been  some  exceptions  to  this  rule  and  there  are  orchardists  who 
favor  the  growing  of  alfalfa  in  an  orchard  year  after  year.  The 
extremely  deep  rooting  of  this  plant  makes  it  valuable  in  improving 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  bringing  up  the  plant  food 
from  a  greater  depth  than  the  ordinary  cover  crop  root  systems  reach. 
Alfalfa  allowed  to  grow  in  a  pear  orchard  for  one  season  only,  if 
plowed  under  when  there  is  a  maximum  amount  of  green  material, 
is  an  exceedingly  valuable  cover  crop.  If  it  grows  longer  than  one 
season  plowing  is  difficult  because  of  the  very  tough  roots  and  the 
trees  may  not  do  as  well  because  of  its  presence.  When  used  as  a 
cover  crop  alfalfa  should  be  drilled  between  the  tree  rows,  being  kept 
at  a  distance  of  at  least  3  feet  away  from  the  trees.  With  ordinary 
precautions  where  there  is  plenty  of  water  the  use  of  alfalfa  is  rec- 
ommended. Where  water  is  scarce  it  should  never  be  grown  as  it 
requires  a  large  amount  of  moisture  and  frequently  trees  are  stunted 
because  of  its  use  as  a  cover  crop  under  drought  conditions. 

FERTILIZERS. 

Under  the  previous  heading  the  fertilizing  value  of  cover  crops, 
especially  the  legumes,  was  briefly  discussed.  The  judicious  use  of 
such  crops  where  conditions  will  permit  of  their  growth  will  result  in 
good  tree  growth,  and  the  production  of  big  crops  of  good  fruit  with- 
out the  addition  of  other  fertilizers.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  nitrogen  is  the  only  essential  element  of  plant  food  that  is 
added  to  the  soil  by  plants  of  the  family  Leguminosae.  Indirectly 
they  serve  another  valuable  purpose  in  that  they  greatly  improve 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  render  more  available  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  which  are  the  other  two  elements  of  plant  growth 
that  are  essential  in  every  soil. 

BARNYARD   MANURE. 

The  addition  of  nitrogen  may  be  accomplished  through  the  use  of 
barnyard  manure,  as  well  as  the  growth  of  leguminous  cover  crops.  In 
fact,  experiments  that  have  been  directed  by  our  state  experiment 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  325 

st;it ions,  and  experience  in  the  use  of  manure  by  fruit  growers  have 
proven  that  there  is  nothing  more  valuable  for  the  fertilization  of 
the  ordinary  orchard  soils  than  barnyard  manure.  The  use  of  the 
automobile,  auto  trucks  and  tractors  has  limited  the  supply  of  horses 
on  our  modern  farms  to  such  an  extent  that  the  supply  of  manure  is 
much  less  than  ever  before  and  the  orchardist  who  can  secure  it  in 
any  quantity  is  very  fortunate.  In  some  cases  it  is  possible  and  when 
available  there  is  nothing'  that  will  bring  better  results. 

COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  rapidly  assuming  a  place  of  great  impor- 
tance in  orchard  work.  Nitrate  of  soda,  bone  meal,  dried  blood,  guano, 
muriate  of  potash,  potassium  nitrate  and  sulphur  each  possesses  merits 
as  a  fertilizer.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  the  most  commonly  used,  and  without 
doubt  the  most  satisfactory  commercial  fertilizer  at  the  present  time. 
In  quantities  of  from  150  to  200  pounds  per  acre,  scattered  evenly 
over  the  surface  or  drilled  into  the  soil  in  the  spring,  it  has  considerable 
value  in  the  pear  orchard  where  the  soil  is  depleted  and  trees  are 
doing  poorly  because  of  a  lack  of  nitrogen.  The  fertilizer  value 
of  sulphur  was  not  recognized  until  recently  when  Prof.  F.  C.  Reimer 
of  the  Talent  Experiment  Station  in  Oregon  discovered  that  when  used 
on  alfalfa  this  element  would  result  in  a  tremendous  increase  in  produc- 
tion. Previously  it  had  not  been  considered  necessary  to  plant  growth. 
Its  value  in  the  case  of  alfalfa  indicates  that  it  will  be  beneficial  if  ap- 
plied to  other  plants  and  while  we  have  no  records  indicating  that  it  is 
valuable  as  an  orchard  fertilizer  its  use  in  the  form  of  gypsum  (calcium 
sulphate)  is  to  be  recommended,  when  the  gypsum  may,  in  addition  to 
its  value  in  supplying  a  requisite  amount  of  lime  to  the  soil,  also  add 
sulphur  to  the  benefit  of  the  trees. 

INTERCROPS. 

During  the  period  from  the  time  of  planting  until  the  pear  trees 
come  into  profitable  bearing,  which  is  ordinarily  seven  or  eight  years, 
it  is  often  necessary  for  the  owner  of  an  orchard  to  grow  crops  between 
the  trees  in  order  to  help  keep  up  the  expenses  of  development.  There 
is  no  real  objection  that  can  be  made  to  intercrops  provided  the  soil  is 
good,  the  proper  crops  are  chosen,  and  there  is  sufficient  moisture  present 
throughout  the  season,  either  normally  or  from  irrigation,  so  that  the 
trees  will  not  suffer.  An  orchard  when  planted  represents  a  permanent 
investment  which  is  to  last  during  a  lifetime  or  longer.  Hence  the  trees 
should  always  receive  the  first  consideration.  With  these  facts  in  mind 
intercrops  of  beans  or  peas,  tomatoes,  cantaloupes,  corn,  potatoes  or 
other  vegetables,  or  strawberries,  can  be  grown  at  a  good  profit.  Beans 
or  peas  are  mentioned  first  because  they  are  legumes  and  instead  of 
depleting  the  soil  they  may  have  a  beneficial  effect  in  the  addition  of 
nitrogen.  Annual  crops  are  to  be  preferred  to  perennial  crops  in  the 
young  orchard.  Alfalfa  is  sometimes  grown  and  cut  for  hay.  This 
practice  can  not  be  recommended,  for  unless  the  water  supply  for  irriga- 
tion is  abundant  there  is  usually  a  condition  of  drought  such  as  to  inter- 
fere seriously  with  the  best  development  of  the  trees.  Young  pear 
orchards  have  been  seen  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  with  the  foliage  yel- 

107 


326 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


low,  the  growth  sparse  and  a  generally  unhealthy  condition  in  mid- 
summer because  of  alfalfa  growing  between  the  rows.  Corn  is  another 
crop  often  planted  in  the  young  orchard.  Its  use  can  not  be  safely 
recommended  except  in  rotation  with  other  crops.  In  the  first  place  it  is 
a  heavy  nitrogen  feeder,  consequently  is  hard  on  the  soil ;  secondly,  it 
grows  to  such  a  height  that  the  trees  are  shaded  too  much,  especially 
when  corn  is  planted  during  the  first  three  seasons  of  their  growth  in 


FIG.  130.     Intercrop  of  field  corn  in  young  pear  orchard. 


FIG.  131.    Intercrop  of  beans  which  produced  31  sacks  per  acre  grown  between 
the  trees  of  young  Bartlett  pear  orchard. 

108 


PEAR   GROWING    IN   CALIFORNIA. 


327 


FIG.  132.  Same  orchard  shown  in  Fig-.  131,  three  years  later.  Note  the  size 
that  pear  trees  have  attained,  indicating  that  no  harm  has  been  done  by 
growing  intercrops  each  season. 


FIG.  133. 


Intercrop  of  tomatoes  growing  between  trees  in  young  Bartlett  pear 
orchard. 


109 


328  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

the  orchard.     Fig.  130  is  a  picture  of  a  young  pear  orchard  in  the  Rio 
Linda  section  of  Sacramento  County  which  illustrates  this  point. 

On  the  extremely  fertile  soils  along  the  Sacramento  River  in 
Sacramento  County  pear  growers  have  made  a  great  success  of  beans, 
tomatoes  and  cantaloupes  as  intercrops.  Fig.  131  illustrates  the  possi- 
bilities of  success  with  beans,  and  Fig.  133  shows  a  fine  crop  of  tomatoes 
growing  in  a  young  pear  orchard.  The  field  of  beans  yielded  31  sacks 
per  acre.  This  exceptionally  high  yield  was  partially  due,  no  doubt, 
to  the  fact  that  inoculated  seed  was  used.  From  15  to  18  sacks 
per  acre  is  probably  about  the  average  that  could  be  expected  from 
beans  in  a  young  orchard.  Fig.  132  is  a  picture  of  the  same  orchard 
shown  in  Fig.  131,  taken  three  years  later.  At  this  time  eleven  hundred 
trees  produced  1,300  boxes  of  pears.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  trees  have 
made  a  splendid  growth  despite  the  fact  that  intercrops  of  beans  and 
tomatoes  have  been  grown  each  season  and  that  the  returns  from  these 
crops  have  paid  good  interest  while  the  orchard  was  coming  into  bearing. 
A  rotation  of  beans,  tomatoes,  corn  and  cantaloupes  is  practiced  by  the 
Sacramento  River  pear  growers  who  are  intercropping  their  young 
orchards.  The  success  which  they  are  making  of  such  crops  as  those 
mentioned  is,  of  course,  only  possible  where  the  soil  is  good  and  where 
moisture  conditions  are  favorable  as  in  this  section. 


no 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


329 


CHAPTER  X. 

GRAFTING  THE  PEAR. 

Pear  trees  are  not  difficult  to  graft,  and  in  cases  where  an  undesir- 
able variety  is  growing  in  an  orchard  it  may  be  easily  changed  to  one 
that  is  desirable.  The  principal  thing  to  bear  in  mind  in  grafting 
pears,  as  well  as  other  deciduous  fruits,  is  that  a  quick-growing,  large 
variety  should  not  be  chosen  for  topworking  on  a  smaller  slow- 


Fio.   134.      Bartlett  graft  on  Easter  Beurre  stock.     A  splendid  union  has  taken 
place  and  a  very  satisfactory  growth  of  the  scions. 

growing  variety.  For  example,  the  Easter  Beurre  or  the  Beurre  Hardy 
varieties  would  not  be  suitable  for  grafting  on  the  smaller,  slower- 
growing  Bartlett.  On  the  other  hand  the  Bartlett  does  particularly 
well  when  grafted  on  stock  of  these  varieties.  Fig  134  shows  some 
grafts  consisting  of  Bartlett  tops  and  Easter  Beurre  trunks.  In  this 
case  the  union  is  perfect  and  the  growth  of  the  Bartlett  tops  is  all 
that  could  be  desired.  Fig.  135  shows  Easter  Beurre  grafts  on  Winter 
Nelis  in  the  same  orchard.  Again  the  union  was  perfect  and  the  very 
large,  thrifty-growing  trees  testify  to  the  success  of  the  operation. 

*in 


330 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


PREPARATION   OF  TREES   FOR  GRAFTING. 

Smaller  limbs  are  more  easily  and  more  successfully  grafted  than 
those  that  are  larger.  When  it  is  decided  to  graft  a  tree  over  to  some 
other  variety,  a  suitable  number  of  branches  from  two  to  four  inches 
in  diameter  are  chosen,  and  cut  off  low  down  near  the  point  where  the 
first  set  of  framework  branches  emanate  from  the  main  trunk.  Care 
should  be  used  in  sawing  off  the  branches  to  prevent  splitting  as  a 


FIG.  135.     Large  Easter  Beurre  grafts  on  Winter  Nelis  stock.     This  tree  was 
not  grafted  until  40  years  old. 

smooth  cut  is  conducive  to  healing  after  grafts  have  been  inserted. 
Sometimes  the  entire  top  is  cut  from  the  tree  at  once.  This  should  be 
done  in  the  case  of  younger  trees,  one  to  five  years  of  age,  but  in  the 
case  of  older  bearing  trees  the  elimination  of  the  entire  top  at  once  may 
be  too  great  a  shock,  consequently  some  of  the  branches  are  left  until 
the  grafts  have  made  a  good  growth,  when  they  are  removed. 

METHODS. 

The  common  type  of  graft  is  known  as  a  cleft  graft.  In  this  method 
the  stub  to  be  grafted  is  split  through  the  center  with  a  chisel  or 
special  grafting  tool.  If  the  branch  is  large,  e.  g.,  4  inches  in  diameter, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  split  it  twice  at  right  angles  so  that  four  scions 
instead  of  two  can  be  inserted.  Still  larger  branches  may  require  addi- 
tional splitting.  The  scion  should  be  cut  from  a  healthy,  heavy- 
producing  tree  of  the  desired  variety.  It  must  be  one-year-old  wood 
selected  because  of  its  thrifty  habits  of  growth  and  large,  strong 
buds.  Water-sprout  growth  should  never  be  chosen  for  grafting  pur- 
poses. Neither  should  scions  be  cut  from  trees  that  have  never  borne 
and  whose  characters  of  production  have  consequently  never  been 
determined.  After  scions  of  the  right  kind  have  been  selected  they 
are  cut  in  lengths  of  about  four  inches,  or  such  lengths  as  will  contain 
two  or  three  buds.  The  large  end  of  the  scion  to  be  inserted  in  the  split 

112 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  331 

end  of  the  stub  is  cut  at  .-in  jm.irlc,  leaving  a  strip  of  bark  on  one 
side  with  a  good  bud  about  the  point  where  the  sloping  cut  begins. 
This  wedge-shaped  piece  is  placed  in  one  end  of  the  split,  in  the 
stub,  which  is  held  open  by  means  of  a  wedge,  so  that  the  cambium 
or  inner  bark  of  the  scion  crosses  the  cambium  or  inner  bark  of  the  stub. 
The  place  where  the  two  cross  forms  a  point  of  contact  where  union 
between  the  cambium  or  growing  layer  of  scion  and  stock  begins.  The 
grafts  are  usually  sloped  outward  slightly  so  that  the  contact  will  be 
sure,  although  an  inward  slope  will  serve  the  purpose  equally  as  well. 
One  such  scion  is  placed  in  the  end  of  each  split  of  a  large  stub,  or  four 
scions  in  all.  In  the  case  of  smaller  branches  only  one  or  two  scions 
may  be  necessary.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  healing  of  the 
stub  is  dependent  upon  the  supply  of  plant  food  made  available  by 
the  leaves  of  the  graft,  and  there  must  be  sufficient  grafts  to  supply 
an  abundance  of  sap  so  that  the  entire  circumference  of  the  stub  may 
heal.  Too  frequently  one  or  two  scions  are  used  where  the  case  would 
require  four  or  more,  and  while  the  grafts  live,  drying  out  and  decay 
of  the  portions  of  the  stub  remote  from  the  grafts  takes  place,  and 
eventually  the  tree  is  ruined. 

WAXING. 

Grafting  wax*  is  used  to  cover  the  outer  end  of  the  scion  unless  it 
terminates  in  a  bud.  Also  the  end  of  the  stub  including  the  split 
portions  of  the  side  throughout  their  entire  length  are  covered  with  a 
heavy  coating  of  wax,  so  that  the  air  is  excluded  from  the  cracks  con- 
taining the  scions.  This  is  the  most  important  operation  in  connection 
with  grafting  older  trees  and  waxing  should  be  done  with  the  greatest 
of  care.  Sometimes  linen  cloth  is  dipped  in  melted  grafting  wax,  and 
wound  snugly  about  the  end  of  the  stub.  The  novice  can  usually  get 
better  results  by  using  the  cloth  than  without. 

The  principle  of  all  grafting  is  the  same.  A  modification  of  the 
method  described  differs  from  it  in  that  the  end  of  the  stub  left  after 
the  removal  of  a  branch  is  not  split  but  a  V-shaped  piece  of  a  suitable 
size  is  sawed  from  the  place  where  the  scion  is  to  be  inserted  and  the 
cut  carefully  smoothed  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  end  of  the  scion  is 
trimmed  in  the  same  shape  and  made  to  fit  snugly  in  the  cut  portion  of 
the  stub.  Care  is  again  necessary  to  have  the  cambium  layers  come  in 
contact  with  each  other.  This  method  is  more  generally  used  by 
expert  grafters  than  the  cleft  method.  The  beginner  will  perhaps 
have  better  results  with  the  latter.  Waxing  is  just  as  important  with 
one  method  as  the  other. 

OTHER   METHODS. 

While  the  two  methods  described  are  generally  used  there  are  other 
ways  of  inserting  scions  or  buds  so  that  they  will  grow  successfully. 
Budding,  as  described  in  chapter  on  "Trees,  Stocks  and  Propagation," 
may  be  done  in  the  case  of  older  trees  providing  younger  branches  are 
selected  for  the  insertion  of  the  buds.  Bark  grafting,  which  is  similar 
to  budding  except  that  short  scions  instead  of  buds  are  used,  is  some- 
times practiced. 

*The  common  formula  is  4  Ibs.  resin,  2  Ibs.  beeswax,  1  Ib.  mutton  tallow.     The  wax 
is  prepared  by  heating  these  ingredients  and  is  applied  usually  by  means  of  a  brush; 
thus  it  must  be  kept  liquid  by  placing  on  a  small  orchard  heater  or  oil  stove. 
8—37406  113 


332 


PEAE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

FROST  INJURY  AND  FROST  PROTECTION. 

Except  in  isolated  districts  the  pear  industry  of  California  has 
suffered  little  from  killing  frosts  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  except 
at  the  higher  altitudes  little  uneasiness  is  felt.  Occasionally  in  the 


FIG.   136.     Bartlett  pears  deformed  by  freezing  in  the  spring. 


FIG.  137.     One  of  the  pears  shown  in  Fig.  136  cut  open,  showing  the  absence  of  seeds 

due  to  frost  injury. 

114 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


333 


foothills  of  the  Sierras,  snowstorms  come  late  in  the  season  and  some- 
times, being  accompanied  by  frost,  are  dreaded  by  the  growers  who 
have  orchards  in  those  sections.  The  pear,  being  somewhat  late  in 
blooming,  and  being  more  resistant  to  frost  than  any  other  deciduous 
trees  not  excepting  the  apple,  very  often  escapes  when  other  trees  suffer. 
Somewhat  characteristic  frost  injury  is  shown  in  Figs.  136,  137  and 
138.  Sometimes  a  common  form  of  injury,  which  consists  of  a  heavy 


FIG.  138.    Russeting  of  pears  caused  by  freezing  in  the  spring. 

brown  russeting,  affects  the  calyx  end  only  and  at  other  times  it 
assumes  the  form  of  a  very  characteristic  band  around  the  fruit  at  the 
point  of  greatest  diameter.  Various  distortions  result  from  severe 
injury  and  frequently  the  fruit  that  was  affected  by  frost  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  its  growth  is  seedless.  Frost-injured  pears  are  never  high 
grade  and  sometimes  are  of  such  poor  quality  that  they  are  scarcely  fit 
for  packing  in  any  grade. 

FROST   PROTECTION. 

Location  is  one  of  the  important  factors  in  frost  prevention.  There 
are  localities  in  frost-subjected  areas  where  crops  are  destroyed  with 
considerable  regularity,  while  in  other  locations  nearby  they  are  seldom 
injured.  The  question  of  air  drainage  and  slope  enter  into  this  problem. 
Orchards  on  lower  lands  are  generally  more  subject  to  frost  injury, 
while  a  northern  slope  may  be  colder  than  a  southern.  Bodies  of  water 
have  an  appreciable  influence  on  frost  and  the  presence  of  water,  even 
when  used  for  irrigation,  may  prevent  the  destruction  of  a  crop  of  fruit. 

In  sections  where  frosts  occur  quite  regularly  in  the  spring  to  the 
serious  detriment  of  fruit  growing,  orchard  heaters  or  fire  pots  may 


1:5 


334 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


FIG.   139. 


Pears  which  have  developed  from  delayed  bloom,  which  frequently 
follows  severe  spring  frosts. 


be  used  to  good  advantage.  Fuel  and  equipment  are  very  expensive 
and  the  pear  grower  is  not  justified  in  going  to  the  expense  of  equip- 
ping his  orchard  with  heaters  except  in  cases  such  as  that  first  men- 
tioned. There  are  a  number  of  different  types  of  heaters,  most  of 
which  are  made  for  burning  oil.  One  ordinary  type  is  shown  in 


FIG.  140. 


Orchard  heaters  among  Bartlett  pear  tr 
Mountain  and  Foothill  Region. 


'Sierra  Nevada 


116 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  335 

Fig.  140.  This  picture  was  taken  in  a  pear  orchard  in  one  of  the 
colder  locations  in  El  Dorado  County.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  pots 
were  placed  midway  between  the  tree  rows  in  the  center  of  each  rec- 
tangle formed  by  four  trees.  Usually  in  addition  a  double  row  of  pots  is 
placed  just  outside  of  the  border  rows  in  order  that  they  may  receive 
ample  protection,  which  is  made  more  difficult  because  of  the  open 
exposure. 

Success  in  the  orchard  heating  work  is  dependent  upon  the  care 
that  the  various  operations  receive.  In  the  first  place  the  heaters 
should  be  filled  and  placed  in  the  orchard  in  plenty  of  time  before  the 
frost  period  arrives,  as  the  placement  and  filling  of  pots  at  the  last 
minute  is  not  conducive  to  the  best  results.  The  heaters  must  be 
lighted  before  the  temperature  reaches  a  point  where  the  fruit  will  be 
killed.  For  example,  if  thirty  degrees  Fahrenheit  will  kill  buds  the 
heaters  should  be  burning  when  the  thermometer  has  reached  thirty- 
four  or  thirty-two  degrees.  It  is  much  easier  to  maintain  a  certain 
temperature  above  freezing  than  it  is  to  raise  the  temperature  above 
that  point  after  it  has  dropped  several  degrees  below.  Tested  ther- 
mometers should  be  used  in  orchards  where  heaters  are  used.  They 
must  be  watched  during  the  danger  period  by  careful  men  who  can 
be  depended  upon  not  to  fall  asleep  just  at  the  critical  time. 

Lighting  of  the  heaters  must  be  done  quickly.  This  is  easily  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  torch  brought  over  the  surface  of  the  oil  in 
heater,  upon  which  a  little  gasoline  is  squirted  from  a  specially  con- 
structed can.  With  a  little  experience  men  can  light  the  heaters  almost 
without  stopping  as  they  pass  from  one  to  another.  Firing  must  be 
continued  throughout  the  entire  time  that  the  thermometer  registers 
below  the  danger  point,  and  also  for  some  little  time  after  it  again 
begins  to  rise.  Sunrise  is  often  a  fatal  time  and  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  heaters  burning  for  some  time  after  the  sun  has 
risen. 


117 


336  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

SPRAYING  THE  PEAR. 

Without  systematic,  regular  and  careful  spraying  for  certain  ever- 
present  diseases  and  insects,  success  in  the  pear  business  is  impossible. 
In  the  discussion  of  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  specific  instruc- 
tions are  given  for  each  pest.  There  are  a  few  general  principles 
regarding  spraying  which  are  needed  if  one  expects  to  get  maximum 
results. 

WHEN   TO  SPRAY. 

The  question  of  when  to  spray  can  not  be  intelligently  decided  unless 
the  orchardist  has  a  knowledge  o'f  the  insects  and  diseases  for  which 
spraying  is  necessary.  In  the  case  of  certain  pests,  for  example : 
codling  moth  and  scab,  which  are  nearly  always  present,  rules  that 
are  subject  to  slight  variations  can  be  laid  down,  for  spraying  to 
control  these  pests  must  be  done  with  regularity  and  at  approximately 
the  same  time  each  season,  at  least  the  applications  for  these  troubles 
must  be  made  when  the  trees  are  in  a  certain  condition  of  their  growth. 
In  the  case  of  certain  other  pests,  for  example:  red  spider,  thrips, 
aphids  and  scale  insects  spraying  does  not  need  to  be  .done  regularly 
and  whether  or  not  the  need  exists  must  be  determined  by  the  owner  of 
the  orchard  to  be  sprayed.  Preventive  sprays  for  pests  of  this  nature 
which  require  contact  insecticides  for  their  control  are  not  usually  of 
any  value  and  the  time  to  spray  is  determined  only  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  presence  of  the  pests  at  a  certain  time  during  the  season.  Thus, 
while  in  the  case  of  certain  insects  and  diseases  spraying  becomes  a 
regular  thing  at  approximately  the  same  time  each  season,  in  the  case 
of  other  pests  spraying  is  done  only  when  conditions  justify  it.  Intel- 
ligent spraying  means  a  fairly  accurate  knowledge  of  the  pests  and 
their  habits  and  a  lack  of  such  knowledge  often  means  time  and  money 
wasted  in  making  untimely  applications. 

THOROUGHNESS   IN   SPRAYING. 

There  is  nothing  in  connection  with  spraying  work  in  general  that 
needs  greater  emphasis  than  the  need  for  thoroughness  in  applying  a 
spray.  Sprays  either  kill  by  contact  or  by  poisoning  through  assimila- 
tion after  being  taken  internally.  In  the  first  case  it  becomes  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  apply  a  spray  in  a  thorough  enough  manner  so  that 
every  square  inch  of  surface  on  a  tree  is  covered.  In  the  case  of  spray- 
ing for  sucking  insects  of  all  kinds  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  no 
portion  of  a  tree  be  missed.  Scale  insects  and  aphids  breed  very 
rapidly  and  failure  to  kill  practically  100  per  cent  may  mean  a  prac- 
tical failure  in  controlling  the  pest.  With  these  insects  present  to 
spray  for  the  work  should  be  done  by  careful,  trustworthy  hands  who 
should  be  taught  to  exert  every  effort  toward  spraying  so  thoroughly 
that  no  insect  wherever  present  on  a  tree  would  be  missed.  Theoreti- 
cally it  would  be  possible  to  reach  every  one,  practically  it  is  not,  and 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  337 

despite  the  most  careful  work,  enough  insects  will  always  escape  so  that 
the  result  of  spraying  will  not  be  complete  eradication. 

It  is  hard  to  get  sprayers  to  realize  the  difficulty  of  wetting  every 
square  inch  of  surface  of  a  tree  unless  they  will  examine  them  imme- 
diately after  making  the  application,  before  the  spray  has  had  a  chance 
to  dry.  Then  it  will  be  seen  that  certain  portions  have  been  missed 
because  of  the  spray  not  having  been  directed  at  proper  angles  to 
reach  them.  Too  often  we  find  sprayers  directing  the  spray  from  one 
side,  allowing  the  wind  to  carry  the  mist  through  the  branches  with 
the  idea  that  in  doing  this  they  are  getting  good  results.  Spraying 
done  from  one  side  of  a  tree  only  is  never  thoroughly  done.  If  the 
wind  is  blowing  far  better  results  can  be  attained  by  spraying  against 
the  wind,  when  not  too  hard,  with  a  high  pressure  so  that  the  spray  will 
be  blown  back  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  trees.  The  best  spraying 
is  done  when  the  sprayer  walks  entirely  around  the  trees  spraying 
each  from  every  possible  angle  as  he  proceeds.  The  work  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  forty-five  degree  angle  used  as  an  elbow  for 
the  nozzle.  This  angle  enables  the  sprayer  to  easily  direct  the  spray 
upward,  downward  or  any  desired  angle  to  the  side. 

QUANTITY  OF   MATERIAL. 

More  stress  must  be  laid  upon  the  methods  of  application  and  the 
thoroughness  of  application  than  the  strength  of  the  insecticide  or 
fungicide  used.  In  the  case  of  most  of  the  sprays  careful  experimenters 
have  determined  the  amount  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  in  order  to 
control  the  pests  for  which  the  spray  is  designed.  Increasing  the 
recommended  strength  in  order  that  better  results  may  be  attained  is 
usually  a  foolish  practice  as  no  strength  of  material  can  be  effectively 
used  unless  it  reaches  the  insects  or  pests.  The  man  who  fails  to  get 
results  in  spraying  with  a  standard  mixture  and  who  attempts  to  make 
improvement  by  strengthening  the  spray  in  practically  every  case  would 
accomplish  his  purpose  not  in  the  way  attempted,  but  by  using  more  of 
the  standard  strength  mixture.  In  other  words,  too  often  failure  to 
get  results  is  due  to  the  use  of  from  three  to  five  gallons  of  spray  per 
large  tree  when  thoroughness  and  success  would  require  at  least  twice 
this  amount. 

THE    PIPING  SYSTEM    FOR   SPRAYING. 

On  account  of  wet  weather  the  ground  in  an  orchard  is  frequently 
so  soft  that  a  spray  truck  can  not  be  moved  about.  Such  a  condition 
as  this  has  interfered  with  spraying  for  scab  practically  every  spring, 
in  some  of  our  orchards.  The  solution  of  this  problem  is  found  in  the 
piping  system  of  spraying  which  enables  the  fruit  grower  to  treat  his 
trees  at  any  time  during  the  season  when  rain  is  not  falling. 

The  cost  of  installing  the  piping  system  is  quite  heavy  and  is  the 
factor  that  prevents  its  general  use.  After  installation  the  expense  of 
operation  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  commonly  used  gasoline-power 
outfit.  Some  figures  for  comparison  may  be  of  interest  in  this  connec- 
tion. Ordinarily,  three  men  are  required  to  operate  the  gasoline-power 
sprayer,  two  nozzlemen  and  a  man  to  attend  to  the  team,  pump  and 
outfit  in  general.  The  usual  capacity  of  a  tank  is  200  gallons.  By 

119 


338  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

working  steadily  with  water  handy  for  filling  tanks,  10  tanks,  or  2,000 
gallons,  per  day  may  be  applied.  It  often  requires,  for  thorough  work, 
10  gallons  of  spray  for  every  average-sized  bearing  tree,  thus  the  services 
of  three  men  are  required  to  spray  200  trees  per  day,  or  an  average  of 
66f  trees  per  man.  In  the  E.  A.  Gammon  orchard,  which  is  piped  as 
described  later,  it  is  not  difficult  to  force  1,000  gallons  of  spray  per  day 
through  each  lead  of  hose.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Gammon  that  10,400 
gallons  were  applied  from  10  leads  of  hose  in  one  day.  To  apply  the 
same  amount  of  spray  with  power  sprayers  it  would  require  the  use  of 
five  ordinary  machines  and  at  least  fifteen  men  to  operate  them. 
Counting  on  an  average  of  10  gallons  per  tree,  each  man  holding  a  hose 
in  the  Gammon  system  would  spray  approximately  100  trees  on  an 
average  per  day.  If  quicker  service  than  this  was  desired  an  addi- 
tional number  of  hose  connections  could  be  provided.  The  amount  of 
spray  applied  per  tree  is  often  less  than  10  gallons  and  depends  very 
largely  on  the  spray  being  applied  and  the  pest  that  it  is  expected  to 
control. 

In  order  that  readers  may  have  as  many  specific  details  as  possible 
regarding  the  piping  system  of  spraying,  two  systems  in  use  in  Sacra- 
mento River  pear  orchards  will  be  described.  The  first  system  that  was 
installed,  as  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to  learn,  is  that  in  the 
Hayward  Reed  orchard,  close  to  Sacramento,  in  Yolo  County. 

HAYWARD   REED  SYSTEM. 

Like  many  others  among  the  pear  growers,  Mr.  Reed  experienced 
great  difficulty  in  getting  his  orchard  sprayed  at  the  right  time  each 
spring,  because  of  late  rains  and  wet  soil.  The  dread  disease,  scab, 
which  requires  an  early  spray  for  its  control,  often  played  havoc  with 
the  fruit  crop  because  of  the  impossibility  of  spraying  at  just  the  right 
time.  Being  a  man  of  a  progressive  nature,  Mr.  Reed  conceived  the 
idea,  nine  years  ago,  of  laying  pipes  throughout  his  orchard  through 
which  the  spray  could  be  forced  from  a  central  pumping  plant,  and 
spraying  could  be  done  at  any  time  that  men  could  walk  among  the 
trees.  Since  that  time,  he  has  demonstrated  that  such  a  system  is  prac- 
tical, efficient  and  economical  in  its  operation,  and  as  the  gasoline-power 
outfit  has  superseded  the  old  hand  pump  so  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  in 
the  larger  orchards  at  least  the  piping  system  will  supersede  the  gasoline- 
power  outfit. 

At  present  the  Reed  equipment  consists  of  a  "Bean  Giant"  four- 
cylinder  pump  located  near  the  center  of  his  orchard,  and  run  by  an 
electric  motor.  .  From  the  pump  a  one-inch  pipe  is  laid  18  inches  deep, 
and  extending  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  orchard  in  one  direc- 
tion. Every  seven  rows  apart  and  at  right  angles  to  the  main  pipe 
f-inch  pipes  with  service  cocks  every  seventh  tree  extend  in  the  opposite 
direction  across  the  orchard.  These  pipes  are  laid  close  in  to  the  tree 
rows,  and  are  deep  enough  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  a  plow  disturb- 
ing them.  The  service  pipes  for  attachment  of  spray  hose  are  located 
close  to  the  trees  where  they  do  not  interfere  with  plowing.  The  rows 
of  trees  are  17  J  feet  apart  and  the  trees  in  rows  20  feet.  One  man  only 
is  required  to  handle  each  hose  and  sprays  49  trees  from  each  hose 
connection. 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


339 


FIG.   141.     Spraying  cherry  trees  at  a  distance  of  one-half  mile  from  pump,  illustrating 
the  high  pressure  attained  in  the  Gammon  underground  spraying  system. 


GAMMON   SYSTEM. 

Fig.  143  is  an  accurate  map. of  the  underground  spraying  system  in 
E.  A.  Gammon's  orchard,  as  it  was  originally  planned.  A  slight 
modification  of  this  system  was  finally  adopted  and  will  be  explained 
later.  The  heavy  lines  in  map  indicate  the  pipe  lines  extending 
throughout  the  100-acre  orchard,  and  the  light  lines  represent  tree  rows. 
The  pumping  plant  is  located  in  the  extreme  southwestern  corner  of  the 
picture.  A  "Bean  Giant"  four-cylinder  pump,  Fig.  142  is  used  to 
force  the  spray  throughout  the  system,  the  power  for  running  the 
machinery  being  derived  from  an  electric  motor.  Water  is  raised  from 
the  river  with  a  IJ-inch  centrifugal  pump  through  the  pipe  D  into  the 
tank  A.  The  dilute  insecticide  or  fungicide  flows  by  gravity  through 
pipe  E  into  delivery  tank  B,  which  is  equipped  with  a  powerful  agitator 
that  keeps  the  spray  well  mixed.  From  tank  B  the  liquid  is  pumped 
into  the  system  at  a  pressure  of  350  pounds  at  the  pump.  This  pressure 
is  sufficient  to  give  a  strong  spraying  pressure  at  nozzles  at  the  points 
farthest  away  from  the  pumping  plant,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  141,  which 
shows  cherry  trees  being  sprayed  at  a  distance  of  approximately  one- 
half  mile  from  the  pump.  As  the  specifications  do  not  show  clearly  in 
the  cut  they  are  printed  underneath.  From  these  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  pipe  running  from  the  pump  to  point  B  is  1J  inches  in  diameter. 
From  this  point  it  is  reduced  to  1J  inch,  later  from  1J  to  1  inch,  and 
f  inch  at  extremities,  all  service  cocks  being  f  inch. 

121 


340 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


122 


1'KAR    (JROWiXG    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


341 


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tiiyf^jjs. 

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•iaS'Ss*tI<ai&S&:2t  *  IlHiffi 


0       qi4  It    9 


342  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

In  the  figure  it  will  be  seen  that  the  original  plan  was  to  have  pipes 
laid  every  twelve  rows  in  an  easterly  and  westerly  direction  through- 
out the  orchard,  these  pipes  branching  from  a  main  lead  in  the  center 
of  the  orchard,  extending  throughout  its  length  in  a  northerly  and 
southerly  direction  from  point  B  in  main  lead  from  warehouse.  Ser- 
vice cocks  were  to  have  been  placed  every  10  rows.  This  plan 
required  the  use  of  125-foot  leads  of  hose,  which  were  found  too  long 
for  one  man  to  handle.  In  order  that  this  difficulty  might  be  over- 
come the  pipes  were  laid  8  rows  or  8  rods  apart  with  hose  connections 
every  5  rows,  so  that  40  trees  are  now  sprayed  from  each  lead,  which 
is  only  75  feet  and  which  can  be  readily  handled  by  one  man.  The 
depth  of  pipes  is  about  18  inches. 

Cost  of  Installation — Mr.  Gammon  states  that  the  cost  of  his  system, 
exclusive  of  the  motor,  was  about  $5,000.  This  cost  may  seem  pro- 
hibitive to  some,  but  when  the  permanence  of  the  system,  the  saving 
in  cost  of  spraying,  the  saving  in  time  and  material,  and  general 
efficiency  are  considered,  it  is  probable  that  any  paying  orchard  of 
50  acres  or  more  will  justify  the  installation.  He  has  pointed  out 
only  one  difficulty  that  has  been  encountered  since  beginning  opera- 
tions with  his  plant  and  that  is  leakage  in  the  valves,  which  are 
rapidly  damaged  by  the  grinding  of  a  granular  spray  forced  through 
the  pipes  under  high  pressure. 


124 


PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


343 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

BACTERIAL  AND  FUNGOUS  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEAR. 

PEAR   BLIGHT. 

In  1878  Professor  T.  J.  Burrill  of  the  University  of  Illinois  isolated 
the  organism  which  causes  the  disease  of  pears  known  as  blight,  and 
since  that  time  the  various  theories  that  have  been  advanced  by  those 
who  were  not  willing  to  accept  a  scientific  fact  have  been  disregarded 
by  all  horticulturists  and  plant  pathologists.  .  The  causal  agent  was 

found  to  be  a  bacterium  and  'was 
named  Bacillus  amylovorus.  The 
plant  pathologist  can  easily  isolate 
this  species  of  bacteria  from  infected 
orchard  material,  and  inoculations 
with  pure  cultures  of  the  organism, 
resulting  in  the  development  of  the 
disease,  have  been  made  over  and 
over  again,  so  that  the  proof  of  this 
particular  organism  being  respon- 
sible for  the  blight  in  pears,  apples 
and  quinces,  but  rarely  in  other  trees, 
is  just  as  positive  as  that  which  con- 
vinces us  that  tuberculosis,  typhoid 
fever  and  diphtheria  are  due  to  spe- 
cific bacterial  organisms  in  the  human 
system. 


FIG.  144.  The  organism  which 
causes  pear  blight,  Bacillus  amylo- 
vorus, greatly  enlarged.  (After 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Distribution. 

The  distribution  of  pear  blight  is  very  wide  in  this  country.  Its 
presence  in  many  localities,  otherwise  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  pear,  has  made  it  necessary  for  fruit  growers  to  give  up  grow- 
ing this  fruit.  Perhaps  in  all  cases  where  failure  was  met  with 
because  of  this  diesase,  the  adoption  of  the  present  careful  scientific 
methods  of  control  which  have  been  evolved  because  of  an  exact 
knowledge  of  the  cause  of  the  disease,  would  have  resulted  in  suc- 
cessful pear  culture.  The  degree  of  virulence  differs,  however,  in 
different  places  and  the  problem  is  much  more  difficult  under  con- 
ditions that  favor  its  development  and  the  intensity  of  its  attack.  In 
California,  this  point  is  illustrated  nicely  by  certain  sections  where 
the  blight  seldom  occurs,  and  where  if  it  does  make  its  appearance 
during  certain  periods  of  time,  it  is  easily  controlled.  There  are  other 
well  known  sections  where  the  disease  is  continually  present  and  where 
it  seems  to  possess  a  virulence  that  makes  control  work  not  only 
difficult  but  a  continuous  job.  There  are  many  factors  that  enter 
into  the  problem,  which  are  responsible  for  the  seriousness  or  the  lack  of 
importance  of  the  disease.  Some  of  these  factors  are  soil,  climate, 
disease  carriers  and  rapidity  of  growth.  Succulent,  rapid  growing 
shoots  are  more  susceptible  than  the  hardier  slow  growing  branches 


125 


344  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

and  any  factor  present  which  tends  to  produce  a  rapid  growth  and  an 
abundance  of  water  sprouts  will  favor  the  disease. 

Nature  of  Injury  and  Spread  by  Insects. 

The  symptoms  of  pear  blight  are  too  well  known  to  the  average 
pear  grower  of  California  to  need  description.  For  the  benefit  of 
those  growers  who  have  had  no  experience  with  this  disease  and  can 
not  detect  its  presence  in  the  orchard,  the  following  description  and 
illustrations  are  designed  to  aid  in  as  clear  a  manner  as  possible. 

In  the  first  place  there  should  be  no  confusion  between  the  terms 
twig  blight,  fire  blight,  trunk  blight,  etc.,  as  these,  being  due  to  the 
same  organism,  are  synonomous,  and  merely  designate  the  point  of 
attack.  Twig  blight  in  the  pear,  if  neglected,  will  in  many  cases,  find 
its  way  into  the  trunk  or  larger  limbs,  thereby  causing  a  similar  though 
more  often  a  local  effect.  A  small  twig  attacked  by  the  blight  is  black- 
ened and  dies  while  one  side  of  a  larger  branch  only  may  show  the 
infection.  As  infection  takes  place  most  frequently  in  the  tender 
growth,  and  in  a  great  many  cases  because  of  blossom  visitation  of 
bees  and  other  insects  which  carry  the  bacteria,  the  fruit  spurs  are 
killed.  The  first  sign  of  blight  in  the  spring  of  the  year  is  often  noticed 
as  the  infected  blossom  spurs  begin  to  die,  and  if  the  season  is  favorable 
for  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  the  insects  have  had  a  chance  to 
visit  trees  with  holdover  blight,  a  general  breaking  out  of  the  disease 
throughout  an  orchard  may  result,  and  the  so-called  twig  blight,  the 
forerunner  of  serious  trouble  in  the  trunks  and  roots,  manifests  itself. 
Frequently,  the  infection  of  tender  growth  takes  place  through  the 
inoculation  in  the  feeding  punctures  of  aphids,  and  a  bad  attack  of  any 
species  of  this  pest  on  pears  is  apt  to  result  in  a  serious  spread  of  pear 
blight,  providing  that  there  are  trees  in  the  orchard  which  have  blight 
when  the  aphids  begin  their  work.  One  of  the  worst  cases  of  wholesale 
spread  of  blight  in  a  large  orchard,  witnessed  by  the  writer,  took  place 
during  a  season  when  Aphis  gossypii  was  present  in  large  numbers 
and  every  tree  in  the  orchard  shared  in  its  attack.  The  winged 
generations  of  aphids,  which  with  most  species  are  common  during  the 
summer  time,  can  readily  spread  the  disease  as  they  fly  from  blighted 
to  unblighted  twigs,  feeding  upon  each  in  turn. 

The  fact  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  tips  of  twigs  which 
are  diseased  become  blackened  or  brown.  In  addition  to  this  symptom 
of  the  blight  little  beads  of  gum  harden  on  the  diseased  bark.  Some  of 
these  are  shown  in  Fig.  145.  These  beads  furnish  a  very  characteristic 
symptom  of  the  blight  and  are  always  present  during  the  early  season 
when  the  disease  is  active.  Later,  as  it  becomes  dormant  or  dies  out, 
they  may  not  be  present. 

As  the  cambium  layer  or  growing  layer  of  bark  is  attacked,  the 
presence  of  the  disease  may  be  detected  by  a  pinkish  or  brownish  dis- 
coloration of  the  cambium  before  it  dies.  When  the  disease  is  "run- 
ning" in  an  orchard  this  discoloration  can  frequently  be  traced  for 
several  inches  back  from  .where  the  disease  can  be  detected  on  the  out- 
side of  the  bark.  The  dead  blossoms,  brown  leaves  and  small  darkened 
fruits  of  blighted  twigs  hang  tenaciously  after  death,  furnishing  addi- 
tional symptoms  of  the  disease  in  an  orchard. 

126 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


345 


While  all  the  symptoms  given  are  valuable  in  the  detection  of  pear 
blight  the  experts,  who  are  trained  for  the  work  of  control  are  able  to 
pick  out  obscure  cases  some  time  before  death  takes  place  and  before 
there  is  a  marked  discoloration.  The  first  symptoms  are  wilting  of 
the  foliage  of  a  diseased  twig,  bark  slightly  discolored  or  blackened  in 


FIG.   145.     Blighted  pear  twigs.     Note  the  beads  of  gum  in  front  of  arrow. 

spots,  an  abundant  flow  of  sap  which  may  already  have  oozed  from  the 
twig,  and  a  discolored  cambium  as  described. 

Holdover  blight  either  above  or  below  ground  may  be  detected  by 
the  presence  of  dead,  more  or  less  sunken,  areas  of  brown  and  black- 
ened bark.  The  discoloration  of  the  cambium  in  such  cases  may 
readily  be  seen  extending  back  for  a  short  distance  beyond  the  dead 


127 


346  PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

areas  of  bark.  During  the  winter  season  when  holdover  blight  is 
present  its  detection  is  often  very  difficult  and  requires  the  closest 
searching.  It  is  also  somewhat  difficult,  in  fact  sometimes  impossible, 
to  tell  whether  or  not  certain  dead  areas  are  due  to  blight.  The  prob- 
lem of  removing  all  holdover  being  of  such  importance,  it  is  not  safe 
to  take  any  chances  on  leaving  any  suspicious  areas  of  bark  that  are 
found  during  the  dormant  season,  consequently  all  doubtful  cases 
should  be  treated  as  pear  blight. 

Destructiveness. 

"It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  no  one  good,"  is  an  old,  trite  saying 
which  finds  application  in  the  case  of  pear  blight  infection  of  our 
orchards,  for  what  has  meant  destruction  of  business  to  many,  has 
meant  to  others  the  adoption  of  proper  methods  of  control,  high 
prices  for  the  fruit,  and  financial  success.  That  the  production  of 
pears  has  been  limited  to  a  remarkable  degree  by  the  worst  of  all 
pear  diseases  is  a  fact  well  known  to  every  student  of  the  pear  industry 
throughout  the  nation.  Whether  or  not  this  has  favored  the  industry 
in  California,  we  know  that  despite  the  blight  many  of  our  growers 
are  doing  remarkably  well.  With  the  tremendous  production  that 
would  result  were  the  blight  eliminated  so  that  every  one  could  grow 
pears,  it  is  doubtful  if  prices  would  be  so  good  and  the  business  on  as 
firm  a  footing  as  today,  and  the  California  pear  grower,  who  considers 
that  blight  is  the  greatest  menace  to  the  industry,  may  be  harboring  a 
friend  in  diguise.  Were  the  disease  impossible  to  control  an  entirely 
different  light  would  be  thrown  on  the  situation. 

In  blighted  orchards  that  have  been  neglected,  the  loss  of  trees  will 
vary  according  to  conditions  which  may  be  favorable  or  unfavorable 
for  its  development.  Many  orchards  in  California  have  been  destroyed 
outright  in  a  few  years'  time.  More  often  the  process  of  destruction 
is  slow  and  each  season  a  few  trees  die  from  the  attack.  Even  in 
orchards  where  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  in  an  attempt  to  eradicate 
blight  it  is  quite  common  to  lose  a  tree  now  and  then.  The  destructive- 
ness  of  this  disease  under  conditions  that  favor  its  development  can  be 
attested  by  many  a  San  Joaquin  Valley  orchardist,  who  some  years  ago 
attempted  to  grow  pears  in  one  of  the  counties  of  this  valley  and  who 
lost  everything  because  of  the  virulence  of  the  disease  under  the 
existing  conditions. 

Holdover  Blight. 

This  term  is  used  to  designate  the  stage  of  the  disease  which  is 
present  in  trees  during  the  dormant  season  and  which  serves  as  a 
starting  point  for  infection  during  the  season  of  active  growth.  Hold- 
over cankers  are  common  in  any  orchard  where  blight  occurs  and 
where  nothing  has  been  done  toward  its  eradication,  and  even  in 
orchards  where  the  greatest  of  care  has  been  exercised  in  control  work 
some  cankers  will  escape  the  eyes  of  the  most  careful  blight  cutters  and 
will  remain  as  a  menace  to  the  health  and  life  of  the  other  trees. 
These  cankers  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  tree,  and  often  are  impossi- 
ble to  detect  in  large  roughened  trunks  by  a  casual  examination  of  the 
tree.  The  plan,  therefore,  adopted  by  up-to-date  blight  cutters  is  to 

128 


PEAK    ({ROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  347 

gouge  any  suspicious  portions  of  the  trunks  and  branches.  In  this  way 
cankers  may  he  discovered  which  otherwise  would  remain,  with  the 
possibility  of  their  disseminating  the  disease  during  the  growing  season. 
The  type  of  gouge  used  is  shown  in  Fig.  147D.  The  frequent  disinfec- 
tion of  the  gouge  to  prevent  inoculations  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Not  all  cases  of  blighted  branches  discovered  during  the  dormant 
season  will  transmit  the  disease  to  other  trees  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  bacteria  may  die  and  the  disease  thus  become  inactive.  Cases  of 
this  nature  are  very  commonly  found  offering  excuses  for  the  care- 
less man  to  neglect  his  orchard  hoping  that  the  blight  will  die  out  of 
its  own  accord.  Again,  it  is  not  safe  to  take  chances  and  whenever  a 
case  of  holdover  is  found  it  should  be  removed  because  of  the  possi- 
bility that  it  is  in  a  live  condition  and  therefore  capable  of  spreading 
the  infection  to  other  branches  or  other  trees. 

Control. 

As  early  as  1895  Mr.  M.  B.  Waite,  who  was  at  that  time  assistant 
in  the  Division  of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  published  an  article  on  the  cause  and  prevention 
of  pear  blight  in  the  year  book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  In 
this  article  Mr.  Waite  gave  much  splendid  advice  which  pear 
growers  would  do  well  to  follow  today.  After  the  pear  blight  made  its 
appearance  in  California  and  threatened  to  very  materially  injure  the 
industry  in  certain  parts  of  the  state,  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
came  to  the  aid  of  our  growers  and  in  the  year  book  of  1906  we  find  a 
report  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  from  which  we  quote  as 
follows : 

"The  Department  has  worked  out  by  careful  bacteriological  investi- 
gation, methods  of  controlling  this  serious  menace  to  the  pear  and 
apple  industry.  The  disastrous  attacks  of  the  old  eastern  pear  blight 
upon  the  magnificent  pear  orchards  of  California  have  brought  into 
prominence  the  importance  of  this  work.  During  the  past  six  years 
the  Department  has  been  engaged  in  demonstrating  on  a  small  scale 
in  certain  isolated  orchards  the  practicability  of  controlling  the  dis- 
ease, mainly  by  the  eradication  of  the  blighted  portions  of  the  tree  and 
the  antiseptic  treatment  of  the  wounds.  Strenuous  efforts  are  being 
made  by  the  Department,  in  cooperation  with  the  State  Experiment 
Station  and  the  state  and  county  horticultural  commissioners  of  Cali- 
fornia, to  assist  in  applying  these  methods  in  saving  the  California 
orchards. ' ' 

There  are  two  methods  that  may  be  used  successfuly  in  controlling 
the  blight.  The  first,  or  cutting  method,  has  been  generally  adopted  in 
the  past,  and  since  the  days  when  Waite  demonstrated  that  by  taking 
the  proper  precautions,  blight  removal  would  save  the  trees  and 
orchards,  hundreds  of  orchardists  have  carried  on  an  effective  campaign 
against  the  disease.  The  second  method,  which  is  newer  but  which 
promises  to  be  by  far  the  most  practical  and  economical  is  the  propa- 
gation of  trees  on  roots  and  trunks  that  are  resistant  or  immune.  Great 
progress  in  the  work  of  finding  resistant  or  immune  varieties  and  species 
has  been  made  by  the  Southern  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  F.  C.  Reimer  of  Talent,  Oregon. 

9 — 37406  129 


348 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Cutting   Method. 

This  method  consists  in  the  removal  of  diseased  wood  from  the  trees. 
In  order  that  results  may  be  satisfactory  the  work  must  be  done  with 
great  care,  and  experienced  blight  cutters  are  in  demand.  The  job  is 
not  one  for  the  careless  or  negligent  man  to  attempt,  but  is  one  for  a 
specialist. 

The  first  rule  to  be  observed  in  blight  cutting  should  be :  as  far  as 
possible  remove  every  case  of  blight  as  soon  as  its  presence  is  detected. 
Failure  to  do  this  may  mean  the  loss  of  trees  and  much  fruit  as  well  as 


FIG.  146.     Specially  made  tool  which  may  be  conven- 
iently used  in  the  removal  of  blighted  portions  of  trees. 
•   (Photo  by  Fred  K.  Howard.) 

endless  labor  and  expense.  Already  a  description  has  been  .given  of 
twig  blight.  Very  often  twigs  will  be  affected  and  the  disease  will  die 
out  before  reaching  any  of  the  larger  branches.  Because  of  this  fact 
the  cutting  of  affected  twigs  is  sometimes  neglected.  Such  neglect  is 
fatal  and  no  pear  grower  can  expect  to  meet  with  success  in  controlling 
this  disease  who  neglects  the  twig  blight.  It  is  true  that  the  disease  may 
be  so  common  in  all  orchards  during  certain  seasons  that  much  labor  and 
expense  will  be  required  to  remove  it.  This  does  not  excuse  the 
orchardist  from  using  every  effort  to  do  so,  as  neglect  at  this  time  will 


130 


I'KAR    GROWING    TN    CALIFORNIA. 


349 


surely  menu  that  at  some  later  date  a  much  greater  outlay  of  money  will 
be  necessary,  as  a  general  twig  infection,  if  neglected,  will  result  in 
many  trunk  and  root  cases  that  can  not  be  treated  without  serious  injury 
to  the  tree  to  say  nothing  of  the  time  and  expense  needed  in  the  work. 
Small  blighted  twigs  may  be  removed  by  means  of  a  pair  of  hand 
shears  or  a  saw.  When  blight  is  running  in  the  spring  or  summer  it  is 
always  necessary  to  cut  well  back  of  where  the  blight  can  be  seen  on  a 
twig.  No  distance  can  be  named  that  is  safe  in  all  cases  and  the  blight 
cutter  must  become  experienced  in  the  work  so  that  he  can  detect  the 
presence  of  blight  by  the  discoloration  of  the  inner  bark.  Cutters 
should  make  a  practice  of  examining  a  twig  after  it  is  removed  by 
cutting  the  bark  from  the  cut  end  for  an  inch  or  more  in  order  that  the 


FIG.   147.     Ordinary  kit  of  tools  used  in  pear  blight  eradication  work. 

blight  discoloration,  if  present,  may  be  detected.  When  it  can  be  seen 
in  a  twig  so  treated  the  cut  has  not  been  made  far  enough  back  and  some 
more  of  the  twig  should  be  removed  and  the  process  repeated.  In 
general,  no  branch  should  be  cut  less  than  six  inches  back  from  where 
there  is  visible  blight  and  frequently  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  the 
final  cut  a  foot  or  more  from  wrhere  the  disease  is  detected.  Disinfection 
as  described  under  this  heading  must  never  be  neglected. 

The  cutting  of  twig  blight,  while  it  may  occasion  an  immense  amount 
of  careful  work,  usually  does  not  result  in  the  disfigurement  and  perma- 
nent injury  to  the  trees,  that  comes  from  the  cutting  away  of  larger 
limbs  or  the  removal  of  large  areas  of  bark  from  the  trunks.  It  is  often 
very  discouraging  for  the  owner  of  a  fine  orchard  to  be  compelled  to 
sacrifice  the  main  portion  of  certain  trees,  and  in  other  cases,  entire 
trees.  He  must  not,  however,  hesitate  to  do  this  when  the  blight  is 
present,  so  that  extreme  measures  are  necessary  for  its  removal.  Large 
branches  can  very  often  be  saved  by  the  careful  removal  of  blighted 
portions  of  the  bark.  Special  tools  shown  in  Figs.  146  and  147  are 
used  for  this  work  and  the  same  precautions  that  must  be  observed  in 
cutting  away  small  twigs  are  necessary  in  this  case.  That  is,  cutting 

m 


350 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


should  not  stop  with  the  removal  of  the  blighted  bark  only,  but  should 
be  continued  well  into  the  healthy  bark  in  order  that  all  the  germs  may 
be  removed. 

The  fight  against  blight  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  tops  of  the 
trees;  in  fact,  if  the  roots  were  not  also  affected  by  the  disease,  its 
control  would  be  a  comparatively  easy  matter.  Blighted  roots  are 
common  in  practically  every  orchard  where  blight  occurs.  It  may  enter 
the  roots  in  different  ways.  Careless  plowing,  whereby  portions  of  bark 
are  removed  from  the  crowns  of  the  trees,  creates  a  fine  starting  point 
for  infection.  Sprouts  allowed  to  grow  from  the  roots  about  the  crowns 
blight  readily  and  carry  the  disease  to  the  roots.  Such  sprouts  are 
very  common  in  cases  where  the  French  root  (Pyrus  communis)  is  used. 
Figs.  148  and  149  are  good  illustrations  of  crown  and  root  work  in 
blight  control.  The  excavation  about  this  tree  was  large  enough  so  that 
a  man  could  very  conveniently  work  within.  By  means  of  a  small 
hatchet  and  bark-scraping  tools  the  bark  was  removed  from  most  of  the 
crown  and  from  the  major  portions  of  some  of  the  larger  roots.  This 
work  is  not  only  laborious  but  very  expensive  and  many  an  orchardist 
would  hesitate  about  putting  in  so  much  time  and  expending  so  much 
money  on  one  tree.  The  owner  of  the  orchard  where  these  pictures  were 
taken  has  had  much  experience  in  blight  control  work  and  he  considers 
that  it  pays  to  have  a  man  spend  a  day  or  more  working  on  one  tree  if 
by  doing  so  he  can  save  it  to  produce 
regular  crops  as  they  do  even  when 
badly  mutilated  as  in  the  pictures 
shown. 

A  constant  fight  is  necessary  in 
some  of  the  larger  California  pear 
orchards  and  men  are  hired  who  do 
nothing  else  throughout  the  season 
except  blight  control  work.  Such  men 
should  not  only  have  a  more  or  less 
technical  knowledge  of  the  disease, 
but  should  also  know  every  detail  in 
connection  with  the  practical  phases 
of  eradication  or  control.  Constant 
work  with  the  disease  soon  enables  one 
to  detect  its  presence  even  though  it 
may  be  inconspicuously  located.  The 
need  of  reliable  men  who  take  an 
interest  in  their  work  is  apparent,  and 
some  of  the  more  progressive  pear  FlG  148  View  of  the  crown  of 

growers    hire    experts    who    supervise      same  pear  tree   shown   in  Fig.    149, 

the  work  of  blight  control. 


taken  from  another  side. 


Disinfection  of  Tools  and  Cuts. 

Failure  to  realize  the  importance  of  the  disinfection  of  tools  and 
cuts  means  at  least  partial  failure  in  the  fight  against  blight.  There 
must  be  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  disease  is  due  to  exceed- 
ingly minute  bacterial  organisms  which  are  easily  and  surely  trans- 
ferred from  one  cut  to  another  in  the  process  of  removing  blighted 


132 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


351 


FIG.  149. 


Severe  treatment  of  a  Bartlett  pear  tree,  which  was  necessary  in  order  that 
all  blighted  portions  of  roots  and  trunk  might  be  removed. 


133 


352  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

branches.  The  surgeon  who  would  perform  an  amputation  without 
thoroughly  disinfecting  his  instruments  before  the  operation  would 
be  considered  criminally  negligent.  While  the  life  of  a  tree  is  of 
much  less  importance  than  that  of  a  human  being  and  the  same  degree 
of  criminal  negligence  could  not  be  charged  against  the  blight  cutter 
who  fails  to  disinfect  his  tools,  nevertheless  he  is  subjecting  the  tree 
to  grave  dangers  comparable  to  those  of  the  patient  of  the  negligent 
surgeon. 

Corrosive  Sublimate. 

The  best  all-round  disinfectant  for  this  work  is  corrosive  sublimate 
(bichloride  of  mercury)  in  a  1  to  1,000  solution.  It  is  prepared  in 
the  form  of  tablets,  one  of  which  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm  water 
gives  the  desired  dilution.  The  liquid  should  be  carried  in  bottles 
or  glass  jars  and  not  metal  containers.  Neither  should  tools  be  dipped 
in  the  liquid  as  a  chemical  reaction  takes  place  rendering  its  use  as  a 
disinfectant  ineffective.  The  common  method  of  application  is  by 
means  of  a  swab  made  by  wrapping  a  piece  of  cloth  and  securely  tying 
it  around  the  end  of  a  stick.  By  means  of  this  swab,  which  may  be 
carried  in  the  liquid,  saws,  shears  and  cut  surfaces  may  be  quickly 
treated  with  the  disinfectant.  It  is  well  to  practice  the  disinfection  of 
all  cuts  as  well  as  the  disinfection  of  the  tools.  This  is,  of  course,  very 
necessary  when  large  areas  of  bark  are  being  removed  from  the  trunks 
and  larger  branches.  In  such  cases  it  is  not  important  that  tools  be 
disinfected  until  a  separate  infection  is  worked  on,  but  it  is  exceedingly 
important  that  the  entire  surface  of  such  cut  surfaces  be  thoroughly 
treated  with  the  disinfectant  as  soon  as  the  bark  has  been  removed. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  very  poisonous  and  the  solution  should  not  be 
left  where  children  might  get  it,  nor  where  chickens  or  other  animals 
might  take  a  drink.  It  will  do  no  injury  by  external  contact  with  the 
skin  but  is  exceedingly  poisonous  when  taken  internally. 

RESISTANT   ROOTS. 

While  careful  attention  to  the  details  outlined  regarding  the  cutting 
method  in  pear  blight  control  has  resulted  in  the  saving  of  thousands 
of  trees  in  California,  there  are  those  who  have  given  up  the  fight 
and  the  neglected  orchards  have  either  been  destroyed  or  rendered 
unprofitable.  Both  those  who  have  carried  on  the  fight  successfully 
and  those  who  have  given  it  up  as  hopeless  will  welcome  anything  which 
will  prevent  or  render  easier  the  expensive  and  exceedingly  difficult 
control  methods  now  in  use.  For  some  time  it  has  been  known  that 
certain  species  and  varieties  were  more  resistant  to  pear  blight  than 
others.  For  example,  the  Japanese  or  Asiatic  Pear  (Pyrus  serotina), 
is  not  so  susceptible  as  the  French  or  European  species  (Pyrus 
communis) .  Most  of  the  older  orchards  in  California  have  Pyrus 
communis  roots  and  these  have  been  readily  affected  by  the  blight. 
The  resistance  of  the  Japanese  stock  has  made  it  popular  of  late  and 
whereas  practically  100  per  cent  of  the  pear  trees  propagated  by 
California  nurserymen  four  years  ago  were  on  European  root  stock 
at  least  75  per  cent  are  now  on  Asiatic  roots  and  the  effect  in  lessening 
the  root  form  of  the  disease  will  be  very  apparent  as  the  new  orchards 
come  into  bearing.  Blight  in  the  tops  of  susceptible  varieties  such  as 

134 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  353 

Bartlett,  Flemish  Beauty,  and  Forelle,  will  not  be  lessened  by  a  resistant 
root  system  but  with  the  fight  against  the  disease  confined  to  the  por- 
tions of  trees  above  ground  much  of  the  expense  now  met  with  will  be 
eliminated.  The  Japanese  root,  while  far  more  resistant  than  the 
French,  is  not  entirely  immune  and  the  search  for  something  still  better 
is  now  going  on.  For  taking  the  initiative  in  this  important  investiga- 
tion, California  owes  much  to  her  sister  state,  Oregon,  which  under  the 
direct  and  able  supervision  of  F.  C.  Reimer,  has  conducted  most  com- 
prehensive and  carefully  planned  experiments  with  more  than  500  varie- 
ties and  30  species  of  pears  at  the  Southern  Oregon  Experiment  Station 

at  Talent.  It  was  the  writer's  privilege 
to  visit  at  this  station  recently,  where, 
in  the  absence  of  Professor  Reimer,  Mr. 
A.  C.  McCormick  described  in  detail  the 
various  experiments.  There  it  has 
been  proven  that,  under  the  conditions 
existing  in  the  Rogue  River  Valley 
of  Oregon,  certain  species  and  varie- 
ties are  practically  immune  from  blight. 
In  fact,  one  species  upon  which  210 
inoculations  on  eight  different  dates 
have  been  made  has  never  developed  a 
single  case  of  blight*  while  alongside, 
susceptible  varieties  inoculated  at  the 
same  time  with  the  same  cultures  have 
always  developed  the  disease.  This 
species  is  known  as  Pyrus  ussuriensis. 
Professor  Reimer  who  made  a  special 
trip  in  1917,  to  Japan,  Korea,  Manchu- 
ria and  China  to  study  this  and  other 
Oriental  pears,  especially  the  blight 
resisting  types,  states  regarding  it  as 

FIG.  150.    Leaf  of  Pyrus  ussuriensis.     />  11 

' '  This  species  appears  to  be  immune  to  pear  blight,  at  least  under  the 
conditions  in  southern  Oregon. 

"The  season  of  1916  has  been  a  favorable  one  for  the  development 
of  pear  blight.  The  disease  has  been  unusually  severe  in  many  of  the 
orchards,  causing  the  loss  of  many  trees.  During  the  season  young 
vigorous  trees  of  this  species  have  been  inoculated  210  times  on  eight 
different  dates.  One  hundred  and  five  of  these  inoculations  were  made 
in  the  tips  of  young  vigorous-growing  shoots,  85  in  branches  less  than 
one  year  old,  and  20  in  the  trunk  of  a  two-year-old  tree. 

"Not  a  single  case  of  blight  developed  in  any  of  these.  Check  trees 
of  many  of  the  other  species  and  varieties  inoculated  at  the  same  time, 
in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the  same  lots  of  bacteria,  blighted  vigor- 
ously. This  is  the  only  species  which  so  far  has  proved  immune  in  our 
work.  It  is  a  native  of  northern  China,  Manchuria  and  eastern 
Siberia,  and  withstands  lower  temperatures  than  any  other  known 

*Address  by  Professor  F.  C.  Reimer  before  the  Pacific  Coast  Association  of 
Nurserymen. 

135 


354  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

species  of  Pyrus.  In  its  native  habitat  the  trees  attain  a  very  large 
size,  often  reaching  eighty  feet  in  height  and  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Whether  this  will  be  a  desirable  stock  for  our  cultivated  American 
varieties,  in  the  mild  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast,  remains  to  be  deter- 
mined. We  have  grafted  and  budded  this  successfully  on  to  our  culti- 
vated varieties,  and  have  budded  our  cultivated  varieties  on  to  it. 
However,  it  will  require  a  number  of  years  to  determine  conclusively 
its  value  as  a  stock  for  our  cultivated  varieties  of  Pyrus  communis. 
If  this  should  make  a  congenial  stock  for  these  varieties  it  will  be  very 
valuable  because  of  its  ability  to  resist  blight. 

"Unfortunately  this  species  has  been  confused  by  some  writers  with 
the  Chinese  Sand  Pear,  commonly  known  as  Pyrus  sinensis*  Lindi. 
These  two  species  are  distinct,  and  can  be  easily  distinguished.  Pyrus 
ussuriensis  bears  roundish  or  slightly  flattened  fruit,  which  has  a  short 
stalk  and  a  persistent  calyx;  and  comparatively  short  and  broad 
leaves,  the  margins  of  which  have  minute  serrations  and  very  long 
slender  bristles.  Pyrus  serotina  bears  roundish  or  pear-shaped  fruits, 
with  a  long  stalk,  a  deciduous  calyx  and  long  leaves,  with  margins 
coarsely  serrate  and  often  bristly.  A  number  of  the  Japanese  nurseries 
list  Pyrus  ussuriensis  but  all  of  these  forms  which  I  have  seen  are 
simply  Pyrus  serotina. 

1 '  Introduction  of  Pyrus  ussuriensis.  So  far  as  I  can  determine  large 
trees  of  this  species  are  rare  in  this  country.  Since  1905  it  has  been 
sent  to  this  country  several  times  by  Mr.  F.  N.  Meyer,  Agricultural 
Explorer  of  the  IT.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Mr.  Meyer's  intro- 
duction S.  P.  I.  number  21880,  is  a  typical  form  of  this  species. 

"In  the  report  of  the  Iowa  Horticultural  Society  for  1912  Mr. 
Charles  G.  Patten,  of  Charles  City,  Iowa,  called  attention  to  a  Chinese 
Sand  Pear  which  he  has  used  in  some  of  his  breeding  work.  He  states 
that  in  1880  Mr.  O.  A.  Bardhall,  of  Grundy  Center,  Iowa,  purchased  a 
tree  of  the  Chinese  Sand  Pear  from  John  S.  Collins  &  Sons,  of  New 
Jersey,  which  was  purported  to  bear  fruit  nearly  as  large  as  the 
Flemish  Beauty.  When  it  came  into  bearing  the  fruit  proved  small, 
hard  and  worthless.  Mr.  Patten  propagated  a  tree  from  this  because 
it  had  proved  its  great  hardiness  during  the  severe  Iowa  winter  of 
1883-4.  Mr.  Patten  states  that  his  tree  at  Charles  City,  Iowa,  has 
never  been  injured  in  the  least  by  cold  and  has  never  blighted  since  it 
was  planted,  in  1885. 

"Since  Pyrus  ussuriensis  has  proved  so  remarkably  resistant  to 
blight  in  our  work  and  as  it  is  the  hardiest  species  of  pear  known,  I 
thought  that  possibly  Mr.  Patten's  tree  belonged  to  this  species.  In 
reply  to  a  letter  Mr.  Patten  kindly  sent  me  leaves  of  his  tree,  which  I 
received"  on  November  10  of  this  year.  As  the  tree  had  not  borne  this 
year,  no  fruit  was  sent,  but  Mr.  Patten  kindly  furnished  a  description 
of  the  fruit  and  stated  that  the  tree  probably  belonged  to  Pyrus 
serotina.  An  examination  of  the  leaves,  however,  shows  conclusively 
that  this  tree  belongs  to  Pyrus  ussuriensis. 

1 '  The  tree  in  Iowa  is  the  oldest  one  in  America  so  far  as  I  have  been 
able  to  learn.  Undoubtedly  there  are  other  trees  in  America  just  as  old 

*  Pyrus  serotina. 


136 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


355 


FIG.  151.     Fruiting  habit  of  Pyrus  calleryaiia.      (After  Reimer.) 


137 


356  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

or  older  than  the  Iowa  tree.  It  is  quite  probable  that  Collins  &  Sons 
sent  out  trees  of  this  species  other  than  the  one  sent  to  Iowa.  I  hope 
that  some  of  these  can  be  located,  and  the  writer  would  be  pleased  to 
receive  specimen  leaves  and  fruits  of  any  tree  which  promises  to  belong 
to  this  species." 

In  the  same  report  referred  to  in  footnote  the  following  other  species 
are  mentioned  as  being  more  promising  than  Pyrus  serotina,  viz :  Pyrus 
caller y ana,  Pyrus  variolosa  and  Pyrus  ovoidea. 
Commenting  upon  these  Reimer  states : 

"Pyrus  cattery  ana,  Decne — This  species  is 
a  native  of  central  and  southern  China.  It 
bears  .small,  brownish  fruit,  with  a  decidu- 
ous calyx.  The  leaves  are  of  medium  size, 
very  glossy,  and  the  margins  possess  short, 
rounded  or  dentate  teeth.  The  tree  is  a 
clean,  vigorous,  upright  grower,  with  very 
smooth  bark.  This  species  appears  to  be 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions,  being 
found  at  elevations  ranging  from  a  few  feet 
above  sea'leval  to  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet. 
It  is  often  found  growing  under  very 
adverse  soil  conditions. 

"There  are  several  trees  of  this  species  at 
Oroville,  California,  which  have  never  shown 
a  trace  of  blight,  while  other  types  of  pears 
near  them  have  suffered  heavily  from  the  dis- 
ease.   These  trees  were  grown  from  seed  col- 
lected in  extreme  southern  China,  and  repre- 
sent the  southern  type  of  this  species.     We 
have  successfully  inoculated  young,  vigorous 
FIG.  152.    Lea?  of  pyrw  caller-  trees   of  this  type,   and  in  some  cases  the 
2/cma.  disease  would  extend  down  the  branches  as 

much  as  three  feet.  It  appears  to  be  resistant  in  wood  that  is  two  or 
more  years  old. 

'  *  The  type  of  this  species  from  central  China  has  shown  even  greater 
resistance  to  blight  than  that  from  southern  China.  In  this  type  we 
have  been  able  to  produce  the  disease  only  in  the  young  wood;  in 
branches  one  or  more  years  old  all  of  our  inoculations  have  failed. 
Since  it  is  very  seldom  that  our  commercial  varieties  on  the  Pacific 
coast  become  infected  with  blight  before  they  are  three  years  old,  this 
species  probably  would  seldom  be  affected  by  blight  when  used  as  a 
stock.  Since  this  species  is  a  native  of  the  mild  regions  of  China,  it 
may  prove  well  suited  to  the  mild  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast.  This 
species  appears  to  be  congenial  to  our  cultivated  types,  as  the  scions 
united  readily,  and  the  young  trees  grow  vigorously  when  grafted  on  to 
the  European  varieties. 


138 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


357 


il  Pyrus  variolosa — This  species  is  one  of  the 
most  promising  types  in  our  collection.  The 
tree  is  a  beautiful,  vigorous,  upright  grower. 
It  makes  a  good  union  with  our  cultivated 
varieties  and  should  prove  valuable  as  a  stock 
for  topworking.  This  species,  while  not 
immune  to  blight,  is  very  resistant.  During 
the  summer  of  1915  a  large  number  of  inocula- 
tions were  made  into  the  tips  of  young 
branches,  and  these  usually  would  blight  back 
for  a  distance  of  three  to  five  inches.  During 
1916,  a  very  favorable  season  for  pear  blight, 
the  disease  would  extend  down  young  branches 
as  much  as  twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  and  in 
one  case  as  much  as  two  feet.  Seventy-seven 
inoculations  were  made  into  the  trunks  of  two- 
year-old  trees.  All  but  seven  of  them  failed  to 
develop  the  disease.  In  the  successful  infec- 
tions, only  small  superficial  cankers  were 
produced.  In  these  cankers  a  new  cambium 
would  readily  form,  and  the  entire  wound 
would  heal  over  perfectly  in  a  short  time. 

"The  origin  of  this  species  or  type  is  still 
a  matter  of  dispute.  .  It  has  been  confused 
with  Pyrus  pashia  of  northern  India,  from 
which  species  it  is  very  distinct.  Pyrus 
variolosa  produces  medium-sized,  pear-shaped 

fruits,  which  have  a  persistent  calyx.  It  is  possible  that  this  is  not  a 
distinct  species,  but  a  hybrid.  If  this  should  prove  to  be  the  case  it 
probably  will  not  come  true  to  type  from  seeds.  This  matter  will  be 
determined  by  a  study  of  the  seedlings  of  this  type.  If  this  does  not 
come  true  to  type  from  seeds,  the  seedlings  will  be  of  little  value  for 
a  root  stock.  If  this  should  prove  to  be  the  case,  it  will,  nevertheless, 
be  of  value  as  a  stock  for  topworking,  when  propagated  by  budding 
or  grafting  on  some  other  root  system. 

"  Pyrus  ovoidea,  Rehder — This  ranks  second  only  to  Pyrus  ussuriensis 
in  blight  resistance.  During  1915  we  were  unable  to  get  the  disease  to 
develop  more  than  four  inches  even  in  vigorous-growing  shoots  of  the 
species.  During  the  very  favorable  season  of  1916  vigorous  shoots  would 
blight  down  as  much  as  fifteen  inches.  As  soon  as  it  reached  the  hard 
wood  of  the  previous  season  it  would  stop.  All  the  inoculations  into  one 
and  two-year-old  trunks  have  failed  to  develop  the  disease. 

"The  trees  are  vigorous  growers,  and  produce  medium-sized  fruit, 
which  is  egg-shaped,  and  has  a  persistent  calyx.  This  species  is  a  native 
of  northern  China,  and  was  formerly  known  as  Pyrus  simonii." 

Not  only  is  it  desirable  to  secure  a  root  that  possesses  a  high  degree 
of  resistance  or  immunity  to  blight,  but  also  a  trunk  which  will  not 
develop  the  disease  to  any  extent.  While  the  Kieffer  is  more  resistant 
than  others  of  our  well-known  varieties  it  often  blights  badly.  In 


FIG.   153.     Leaf  of  Pyrus 
variolosa. 


139 


358 


PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


the  Talent  experimental  orchard,  Reimer  is  using  a  variety  known  as 
Surprise  with  splendid  results.     We  quote  from  him  again  as  follows : 

"We  obtained  propagating  wood  of  the 
Surprise  from  the  Horticultural  Depart- 
ment of  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station.  There  two  large  trees  of  this 
variety  have  never  shown  any  blight 
while  other  varieties  of  pears  in  the 
same  orchard  surrounding  these  trees 
have  suffered  severely  from  blight; 
many  of  them  have  blighted  to  the 
ground.  During  1915,  many  inocula- 
tions were  made  into  this  variety.  When 
inoculations  were  made  into  the  tips  of 
tender  young  shoots,  they  would  blight 
back  for  a  distance  of  only  three  to  four 
inches.  Inoculations  made  into  the 
trunks  of  two-year-old  trees  failed  to 
develop  the  disease.  The  season  of  1916 
proved  very  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  pear  blight,  and  hence  was  ideal 
for  testing  the  blight-resisting  qualities 
of  this  variety.  A  large  number  of 
inoculations  were  made  into  the  trunks 
of  one  and  two-year-old  trees  on  several 
different  dates.  Many  of  these  inocula- 
tions failed  entirely,  while  many  pro- 
duced small  superficial  cankers  in  which 
the  disease  soon  died,  and  then  these 
wounds  would  heal  over  perfectly.  In 
two  trees  rather  large  wounds  were  produced.  These,  however,  soon 
healed  over.  Check  trees  of  many  other  varieties  and  types  inoculated 
at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  and  with  the  same  lots  of 
bacteria  were  killed  by  the  disease. 

"The  Surprise  is  an  extremely  vigorous  grower,  with  an  upright 
slightly  spreading  habit,  making  a  desirable  tree  for  top  working. 
Young  trees  topworked  on  this  variety  are  making  a  very  fine  growth. 

' '  The  origin  of  the  Surprise  is  not  known.  A  few  trees  of  this  variety 
were  sent  out  by  Stark  Bros.  Nursery  for  testing  purposes  about  fifteen 
years  ago.  Their  records  do  not  show  where  the  variety  was  obtained." 

The  work  in  Oregon  offers  much  encouragement  for  California  pear 
growers.  We  must  not,  however,  be  too  hasty  in  our  conclusions  and 
before  definite  recommendations  are  made  for  this  state  there  should 
be  careful  experimental  work  done  with  these  promising  varieties  and 
species  under  our  conditions.  Mr.  A.  L.  Wisker  of  Grass  Valley  has 
been  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  work  of  experimentation  with  Japanese 
roots  and  results  have  been  fairly  satisfactory,  so  much  so  in  fact  that 
he,  as  a  practical  nurseyman,  has  given  up  the  use  of  the  French  root 
for  propagating  purposes,  with  the  result  that  other  nurserymen  in  the 
state  have  followed  his  example. 


FIG.   154.     Leaf  of  Surprise. 


140 


PEAR   GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


359 


•£ . '  ' 


FIG.   155.     Bridge-grafting  of  a  tree  which  has  been  badly  injured  in  pear  blight  con- 
trol work.     Scions  used  in  this  case  were  about  five  feet  in  length. 


141 


360  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

BRIDGE-GRAFTING   AFTER    REMOVAL  OF   LARGE   AREAS  OF   BARK    IN 

BLIGHT  WORK. 

In  cases  where  it  has  been  necessary  to  remove  so  much  bark  that  the 
tree  is  endangered  because  of  the  sap  not  being  able  to  flow  in  sufficient 
quantities  from  the  roots  to  the  branches  and  vice  versa,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  bridge-graft.  If  a  tree  is  completely  girdled,  then  this  is 
the  only  means  of  saving  it;  if  only  partially  girdled  it  may  live  and 
thrive  without  such  grafts.  Not  many  of  the  California  pear  growers 
who  have  found  it  necessary  to  carry  on  a  campaign  against  blight  in 
their  orchards  have  resorted  to  the  use  of  these  grafts,  but  have  con- 
sidered that  a  tree  when  girdled  by  blight  was  not  worth  trying  to 
save.  There  is  no  question  that  under  certain  conditions  their  use  pays. 
Figs.  155  and  156  illustrate  this  work  as  it  has  been  done  in  one  of  the 
leading  pear  orchards  of  the  Sacramento  Valley.  Some  of  the  scions 
used  in  this  orchard  are  six  feet  or  more  in  length.  The  process  of 
grafting  is  simple,  consisting  merely  in  the  insertion  of  one  end  of  a 
twig  in  the  good  bark  below  the  injured  portion  and  the  other  end  in 
the  same  manner  above.  As  in  all  grafting  operations  it  is  only  neces- 
sary that  the  cambium  layers  of  the  trunk  and  scion  come  in  contact  at 
some  point  where  union  will  take  place.  The  ends  of  scion  can  be  cut 
in  any  convenient  way  to  bring  this  about.  After  insertion  beneath  the 
bark  the  ends  are  carefully  waxed  over  to  exclude  the  air  and  to  prevent 
drying.  Once  union  takes  place  they  grow  very  readily.  Water 
sprouts  growing  from  below  a  girdle  or  injury  may  be  utilized  by  cut- 
ting off  and  grafting  in  the  upper  end  in  the  good  bark  above  the 
girdle.  It  may  also  be  practical  at  times  to  plant  young  trees  by  the 
side  of  old  ones  for  the  purpose  of  grafting  them  into  the  trunks  of  the 
latter  when  they  serve  exactly  the  same  purpose  as  the  grafts  in  the 
other  cases  mentioned. 

PREVENTIVE   MEASURES. 

Since  rapid,  succulent  conditions  of  growth  are  favorable  to  blight  it 
follows  that  anything  which  will  prevent  such  growth  will  retard  the 
disease.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  best  to  fertilize  too  heavily  when  trees 
are  growing  under  conditions  that  are  very  favorable  and  which  are 
inclined  to  bring  about  excessive  growth.  An  abundance  of  water  may 
have  a  similar  effect  in  lessening  the  trees'  resistance  to  blight.  There- 
fore withholding  irrigation  water  in  times  of  serious  blight  epidemics 
may  render  the  trees  less  liable  to  contract  the  disease. 

The  control  of  insect  pests  which  serve  as  carriers,  and  which  inocu- 
late the  trees  with  the  blight  organism  is  another  important  factor  in 
the  control  of  the  trouble.  One  of  the  most  troublesome  insect  pests  is 
the  ant.  There  are  various  species  which  may  be  found  in  orchards. 
They  are  especially  bad  when  the  trees  are  infested  with  aphids  or 
scale  insects,  as  the  droppings  of  these  insects,  known  as  honeydew, 
are  a  favorite  food  of  the  ants.  These  pests  are  so  exceedingly  active 
that  they  crawl  over  all  parts  of  a  tree  and  wherever  a  case  of  holdover 
exists,  they  are  almost  sure  to  carry  it  to  the  blossoms  where  infection 
takes  'place.  The  disease  may  then  be  readily  carried  by  bees  and 
other  blossom  visitants  among  the  insects.  This  illustrates  the  great 

142 


PEAR   GROWING    TN    CALIFORNIA. 


361 


.... 


FIG.  156. 


Water  sprout  used  to  bridge  over  the  trunk  of  a  tree  from  which  bark  has 
been  removed  in  blight  control  work. 


362 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


importance  of  the  ant  as  a  blight  spreader  and  the  necessity  for  its 
control.  One  of  the  most  practical  methods  of  preventing  ants  from 
getting  into  the  trees  is  to  apply  a  band  of  the  sticky  tanglefoot  prepa- 
ration to  the  trunks.  For  years  the  0.  &  W.  Thum  Company  have  been 
manufacturing  this  material  for  insecticidal  purposes.  It  is  safe  to 
apply  direct  to  the  trunks  of  trees,  as  years  of  experience  have  proven, 
and  while  fresh,  at  least,  no  insect  can  cross  over  it.  Some  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  keeping  it  fresh  enough  for  any  length  of  time  to  pre- 
vent the  ants,  which  are  very  strong,  from  crossing  over.  Consequently, 


FIG.   157.     Tree  tranglefoot  around  the  trunk  of  a  blighted  tree  to  prevent  ants 
from  crawling  up  the  trunk  and  thus  distributing  pear  blight  organisms. 

when  used  to  control  ants  it  should  be  freshened  every  few  days  by 
adding  a  new  supply  or  by  disturbing  the  surface  of  that  already 
applied  so  that  it  possesses  its  original  sticky  characteristics. 

Another  very  important  group  of  insects  bearing  a  close  relation  to 
the  spread  of  blight,  are  the  aphids.  Spraying  with  a  good  contact 
insecticide,  e.  g.,  nicotine  sulphate,  to  control  these  pests  is  important 
during  a  season  of  severe  blight  infestation.  The  various  species  of 
mites  which  feed  on  the  pear  are  no  doubt  also  responsible  for  spreading 
blight  and  should  therefore,  if  for  no  other  reason,  be  controlled.  Since 
the  blight  is  due  to  a  bacterial  organism  and  can  not  become  started  in 
a  tree  unless  the  organism  is  placed  there  by  some  outside  agent,  and 
since  the  insects  have  been  proved  to  be  the  agents  most  general^  con- 
cerned in  the  work  of  carrying  the  germs  and  inoculating  the  trees, 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  the  numbers  of  injurious  species 
to  a  minimum  in  the  orchards. 


144 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


363 


Tree  which  has  been  completely  girdled  by  pear  blight  saved  by  scraping  the 
bark  from  the  surface  and  applying  Bordeaux  paste. 


10—37406 


141 


364  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

NEW    METHOD   OF   BLIGHT  CONTROL   A   POSSIBLE   SUCCESS. 

Fig.  158  illustrates  a  type  of  tree,  thousands  of  which  have  been 
uprooted  because  of  complete  girdling  by  blight.  An  examination  of 
the  picture  will  show  that  from  a  point  just  below  the  handkerchief 
on  the  main  central  branch,  to  the  ground,  and  also  for  a  considerable 
height  on  the  other  two  main  branches  the  bark  has  been  scraped 
away.  From  the  ground  to  the  handkerchief  is  about  5  feet  and  for 
this  entire  distance  blight  had  completely  girdled  the  tree.  By  scrap- 
ing away  the  outside  bark,  removing  just  as  little  of  it  as  possible, 
and  applying  a  concentrated  Bordeaux  paste  the  tree  was  saved  and 
the  cracks  seen  in  the  bark  are  due  to  the  development  of  the  healthy 
growing  layers  underneath. 

Work  of  this  nature  has  been  done  for  the  past  year  in  the  Hayward 
Reed  orchard  near  Sacramento,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Reed,  trees  which 
at  one  time  were  considered  hopeless  cases  can  be  saved  providing 
that  the  bark  has  not  been  killed  when  the  infection  is  discovered,  and 
providing  that  prompt  measures  are  taken  in  scraping  away  the  out- 
side bark  from  every  square  inch  of  diseased  surface,  treating  same 
with  Bordeaux  paste  or  concentrated  lime-sulphur.  Prior  to  the  appli- 
cation of  either  of  these  the  wound  should  also  be  disinfected  with 
corrosive  sublimate. 

Experiments  were  made  without  the  use  of  Bordeaux  or  lime- 
sulphur,  with  the  idea  that  exposure  to  the  sunlight  and  air  would  kill 
the  bacteria.  Some  cases  treated  in  this  manner  recovered,  but  in 
most  cases  the  disease  was  only  temporarily  checked.  The  hundreds 
of  trees  saved  after  the  application  of  either  Bordeaux  or  lime-sulphur 
indicate  that  there  is  a  possibility  of  very  successful  control  work 
along  the  lines  suggested.  The  method  is  not  recommended  except 
for  trial,  because  of  the  fact  that  insufficient  work  has  been  done  to 
justify  such  a  recommendation,  and  hasty  conclusions  might  lead  to 
serious  consequences. 

PEAR  CANKER. 

In  Vol.  I,  No.  7,  of  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  California  State 
Commission  of  Horticulture,  Professor  H.  S.  Fawcett  described  a 
canker  of  pears  from  material  that  he  received  from  El  Dorado  County. 
Apparently  this  canker  was  due  to  the  fungus  Sphaeropsis  malorum. 
The  following  is  quoted  from  his  article: 

"In  the  center  of  the  affected  spot  is  a  small  circle  of  cracked  bark. 
This  is  surrounded  by  larger  elliptical  rings  of  cracked  bark  with  the 
longer  axis  of  the  ellipse  in  the  direction  of  the  branch.  Professor 
R.  E.  Smith  refers  to  this  canker  under  the  head  of  "Curly  Bark  of 
Pear"  (Bulletin  218,  California  Experiment  Station).  Cankers  due 
to  the  fungus  Sphaeropsis  malorum  have  often  been  reported  on  apple, 
quince  and  pear  trees  in  the  .Eastern  states.  The  same  fungus  also 
causes  a  rotting  of  the  fruits  known  as  black  rot. ' '  Removal  of  cankers 
as  in  pear  blight  is  recommended. 

Cankers  may  also  be  due  to  species  of  Nectria  which  have  been 
found  attacking  apple  trees  with  the  formation  of  similar  cankers. 


146 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


365 


CROWN    GALL    (Pseudomonas  tumefaciens). 

While  pear  trees  are  not  so  susceptible  to  this  disease  as  the  stone 
fruits,  they  are  nevertheless  frequently  infected  and  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  carefully  inspect  all  nursery  trees  for  this  trouble.  Crown 
gall  is  a  bacterial  disease  which  corresponds  very  closely  in  its  effect 
upon  plants  to  cancer  in  the  human  being.  This  disease  is  shown  on 
pear  trees  in  Fig.  159.  Like  cancer,  there  is  no  cure  after  the  disease 
becomes  well  established  in  a  tree.  Experiments  have  been  conducted 
in  which  the  galls  have  been  cut  from  the  trees  and  the  wounds  dis- 
infected with  Bordeaux  paste  or  some  other  disinfectant.  It  seems 


FIG.  159.     Pear  nursery  trees  badly  infected  with  crown  gall. 

impossible  to  cut  away  every  portion  of  the  disease,  consequently  a 
recurrence  can  always  be  expected  after  such  treatment.  Preventive 
measures,  therefore,  must  be  carefully  considered  and  all  young  trees 
that  show  signs  of  crown  gall  should  be  discarded  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing orchard. 

OAK  ROOT  FUNGUS  (Armillaria  mellea). 

This  is  a  very  serious  disease  which  attacks  most  of  the  deciduous 
as  well  as  citrus  fruit  trees  and  olives.  The  pe'ar  is  apparently  less 
susceptible  than  many  other  kinds  of  trees,  e.  g.,  prunes,  peaches  and 

147 


366  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

almonds,  but  under  favorable  conditions  the  trees  contract  the  disease. 
The  fungus  attacks  oaks  and  other  wild  native  trees  and  fruit  trees 
become  infected  when  their  roots  come  in  contact  with  diseased  roots 
of  other  trees  in  the  soil.  The  fungus  lives  on  dead  roots  until  they 
have  entirely  decayed,  consequently  fruit  trees  may  not  contract  the 
trouble  until  years  after  they  have  been  planted. 

The  growth  of  the  fungus  on  the  bark  of  roots  and  crowns  causes 
decay  and  death  of  the  affected  parts.  Girdling  and  death  of  infected 
trees  ultimately  takes  place. 

The  nature  of  the  disease  does  not  favor  a  rapid  spread  throughout 
an  orchard,  and  it  is  usually  detected  by  more  or  less  circular  areas 
of  dead  trees.  These  areas  are  due  to  the  spread  of  the  disease  from  a 
common  center  of  infection  by  contact  of  good  roots  of  surrounding 
trees  with  those  that  already  have  the  disease. 

Control. 

Professor  W.  T.  Home*  of  the  Department  of  Plant  Pathology,  Uni- 
versity of  California,  has  done  more  work  than  any  one  else  in  the 
state  to  determine  methods  of  control.  First  of  all  he  recommends  the 
removal  of  all  roots  as  far  as  possible  from  new  land  before  planting  to 
trees.  Growing  alfalfa  for  a  few  years  prior  to  planting  is  also  sug- 
gested. Experiments  with  citrus  were  conducted  by  Professor  Home 
in  limiting  the  affected  areas  by  trenching.  No  doubt  this  work  could 
be  just  as  successfully  done  with  pears  as  with  oranges.  We  quote 
from  his  Monthly  Bulletin  article,  referred  to  in  footnote,  as  follows: 

"One  spot  ditched  was  in  an  orange  orchard  in  good,  mellow  soil, 
trees  good  and  more  than  ten  years  old.  There  were  two  dead  trees  and 
two  infected  at  the  root  but  with  the  tops  still  fine.  The  ditch  was  made 
3  to  3^  feet  deep,  no  wider  than  necessary  for  digging.  It  seemed  to 
have  cut  all  the  roots.  Infected  roots  could  be  readily  recognized.  As 
finished  it  was  believed  that  no  diseased  orange  roots  crossed  outside 
the  ditch.  A  layer  of  tarred  building  paper  of  good  quality  was  put 
against  one  side  of  the  ditch  to  prevent  new  roots  from  crossing  back 
into  the  diseased  area. 

"After  a  little  more  than  two  years  the  ditch  was  reopened.  The 
building  paper  was  worthless  for  stopping  the  roots,  as  they  grew 
through  it  very  readily.  The  rest  of  the  experiment  was  highly  encour- 
aging. In  repeated  cases  a  root  from  which  a  piece  had  been  cut  out 
could  be  recognized  unmistakably  on  the  two  sides  of  the  ditch.  The 
piece  within  the  diseased  area  would  be  in  an  advanced  condition  of 
decay  with  the  fungus,  while  the  end  toward  the  unaffected  tree  and 
outside  the  diseased  area  would  be  entirely  unattacked  and  putting  out 
numerous  new  roots.  There  could  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  if  the 
ditch  had  not  been  made  the  fungus  would  surely  have  followed  the 
root  and  there  would  have  been  no  hope  of  saving  the  tree.  Around  this 
area,  which  included  four  diseased  trees,  no  less  than  five  good  trees 
were  saved  from  infection.  If  once  opening  the  ditch  will  save  the 
sound  tree  from  infection  for  two  years,  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
thing  can  not  be  done  again  in  the  same  place  and  the  spot  permanently 
restrained  to  its  present  area/' 

'Monthly  Bulletin,  State  Commission  of  Horticulture,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  7. 

143 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


367 


PEAR  SCAB. 

Next  to  pear  blight  scab  is  the  most  serious  disease  of  pears.  Unlike 
the  blight,  which  affects  the  tree  itself,  scab  attacks  the  fruit  and 
foliage.  Despite  spraying  methods,  which  are  satisfactory  in  the  con- 
trol of  this  disease  it  annually  causes  a  heavy  loss  of  pears  because  of 
inattention  to  spraying  or  because  of  faulty  methods  or  failure  to  make 
applications  at  the  right  time. 

Pear  scab  is  due  to  a  fungus  called 
Venturia  pyrina.  Its  occurrence  is 
common  throughout  the  pear-growing 
districts  of  the  state,  but  more  or  less 
seasonal.  For  example,  in  1915  there 
was  practically  none  of  the  disease  in 
the  pear-growing  districts  of  the  Sac- 
ramento Valley.  Spraying  could  not 
account  entirely  for  the  almost  total 
absence,  as  there  was  little  or  no  scab 
in  orchards  not  sprayed.  In  1916  just 
the  reverse  was  the  case  and  except  in 
orchards  where  the  spraying  was  done 
just  right  and  at  just  the  proper  time, 
there  was  so  much  infection  that  a  large 
percentage  of  the  pears  were  not  fit  to 
pack  and  were  utilized  by  the  canneries 
with  considerable  wastage.  Again,  in 
1917  the  scab  was  not  at  all  bad  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  wherever  the 
least  effort  was  made  to  control  it  little 
difficulty  was  experienced  with  its 
attack.  Weather  conditions  are  no 
doubt  responsible  for  the  prevalence  of 
the  disease  during  certain  seasons.  As 
humidity,  and  heat  generally,  favor  the 
development  of  any  fungous  trouble  we 
would  expect  such  conditions  in  the 
early  spring,  as  the  buds  are  unfolding 
to  favor  the  development  of  this  fun- 
gus. 

The  presence  of  the  disease  in  an  orchard  is  recognized  by  sooty- 
like  blotches  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and  bluish,  more  or  less 
circular  roughened  patches  on  the  surface  of  the  pears.  As  the  fungus 
dies  and  becomes  inactive  these  patches  change  to  brown,  roughened, 
scabby  areas  which  check  the  growth  of  the  fruit  at  places  of  attack, 
thus  causing  distortion  and  abnormally-shaped  pears  as  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  161.  The  injury  to  the  fruit  is  local,  affecting  princi- 
pally the  surface,  and  causing  slight  discoloration  and  noticeable 
hardening  underneath  the  skin.  But  for  the  distortion  scabby  pears 
would  not  be  nearly  so  objectionable. 


FIG.  160.  Pear  leaf  showing 
infection  with  scab  fungus,  Ven- 
turia pyrina. 


149 


368 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 
Treatment. 


As  the  fungus  spends  the  winter  on  foliage  that  has  fallen  to  the 
ground  the  spores  being  discharged  from  this  dead  foliage  in  the  spring, 
it  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of  all  leaves  in  the  orchard  in  some  manner  so 
that  the  spores  can  not  infect  the  new  growth.  On  account  of  the  fer- 
tilizer value  of  the  leaves  they  should  not  be  burned  or  destroyed,  but 


FIG.  161.     Pear  infected  with  scab.     (After  R.  E.  Smith.) 

should  be  plowed  under,  in  which  case  there  would  be  no  chance  of  the 
spores  getting  into  the  trees.  This  in  itself  is  not  sufficient  for  control 
as  there  will  be  spores  on  the  trees  and  spraying  is  always  necessary 
in  orchards  where  scab  is  present  year  after  year. 


150 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


FIG.  162.  Pear  buds  showing  stage  of  develop- 
ment when  second  application  for  scab  should  be 
made.  (Photo  by  Claude  Van  Dyke.) 

made  at  as  nearly  the  right  time  as  possi- 
ble each  spring.  This  application  must 
be  followed  by  a  second  in  about  one 
week,  or  when  the  cluster  buds  have  begun 
to  separate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  163.  Both 
sprayings  should  be  made  with  the  utmost 
care  and  in  the  most  thorough  manner.  A 
high  pressure  is  desirable  in  order  that  the 
spray  may  penetrate  into  the  cluster  of 
buds.  Either  lime-sulphur  solution  or 
Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  used  for  the 
first  two  treatments.  Lime  sulphur  should 
be  applied  at  the  strength  of  1  gallon  of 
lime  sulphur  to  ten  gallons  of  water,  and 
Bordeaux  at  the  regular  dormant  strength 
of  20  pounds  copper  sulphate,  25  pounds 
lime  to  200  gallons  of  water.  Bordeaux 
paste  to  be  diluted  with  water  is  now 
available  and  serves  the  purpose  just  as 
well  as  the  home  prepared  mixture. 

A  third  treatment  for  scab  is  necessary 
in  combination  with  the  first  spraying  for 
codling  moth,  or  at  the  time  when  the 
blossoms  have  dropped  from  the  trees.  At 
this  time  arsenate  of  lead  and  Bordeaux 
mixture,  or  arsenate  of  lead  and  atomic  or 
milled  sulphur  can  be  used.  In  this  case 


Early  dormant  spray- 
ing, at  one  time  thought 
to  be  necessary  in  the  con- 
trol of  scab,  is  not  impor- 
tant, but  spraying  when 
the  buds  are  beginning  to 
unfold,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  162,  should  never  be 
neglected.  Failure  to  ap- 
ply a  fungicide  when  the 
buds  are  practically  in 
this  stage  means  failure 
to  control  the  disease. 
Therefore  promptness  is 
necessary  during  seasons 
when  scab  conditions  are 
favorable.  As  no  one  can 
foresee  these  seasons 
there  should  be  no  chances 
taken  and  the  treatment 


FIG.  163.  Pear  buds  showing 
stage  of  development  when  first 
spraying  for  scab  should  be 
made.  (Photo  by  Claude  Van 
Dyke.) 


151 


370 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


FIG.  164.  Young  pears  in  proper  condition  for  first 
codling  moth  spray  and  third  spray  for  scab.  (Photo 
by  Claude  Van  Dyke.) 

the  strength  of  the  Bordeaux  should  be  reduced  to  15  pounds  copper 
sulphate  and  20  pounds  lime  to  200  gallons  of  water.  In  sections  where 
thrips  are  troublesome  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  nicotine  sulphate  in 
combination  with  the  first  two  scab  treatments. 


152 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  371 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

INSECT,  MITE  AND  OTHER  ANIMAL  PESTS  OF  THE  PEAR. 

Pear  trees  are  attacked  by  such  a  variety  of  insect  pests  that 
in  order  to  be  most  successful  in  pear  culture  it  is  desirable  that  the 
grower  be  able  to  recognize  the  various  species  and  to  know  what  treat- 
ment is  necessary  for  their  control.  The  most  cosmopolitan  and  impor- 
tant of  these  pests  have  been  treated  somewhat  at  length,  while  those  of 
lesser  importance  have  been  mentioned  very  briefly.  The  fact,  however, 
must  not  be  overlooked  that  certain  insects  that  are  of  lesser  importance 
in  one  locality  may  be  very  serious  somewhere  else  and  even  though  such 
pests  as  leaf  roller  and  thrips  have  not  been  described  in  detail  there 
are  certain  parts  of  California  where  they  are  exceedingly  serious.  In 
the  case  of  codling  moth  it  may  be  considered  to  be  the  most  cosmopoli- 
tan of  all  and  in  practically  every  pear-growing  section  of  the  state  its 
ravages  are  seen,  and  spraying  for  its  control  is  absolutely  necessary. 

CODLING    MOTH    (Carpocapsa  pomonella). 

This  serious  insect  pest  of  the  pear  and  apple  is  more  easily  controlled 
in  orchards  of  the  former  fruit  than  in  those  of  the  latter,  and  while 
spraying  must  not  be  neglected  in  pear  orchards  wherever  this  insect 
occurs,  the  exacting  precautions  which  are  necessary  in  badly  infested 
apple  orchards  are  not  necessary  when  spraying  the  pear. 

Habits. 

The  different  stages  of  the  pest  are  as  easily  recognized  in  pear  as  in 
apple  orchards,  when  equally  abundant.  The  winter  season  is  always 
passed  in  the  mature  larval  stage,  under  loose  bark,  in  cracks  of  the 
trees,  in  packing  houses  where  fruit  was  packed  during  the  season  and 
in  various  other  places.  The  wintering  larvae  are  protected  by  tough, 
impervious  cocoons  of  silk.  As  soon  as  the  weather  gets  warm  in  the 
spring  they  become  somewhat  active,  and  pupate  within  the  cocoons, 
from  which  emerge  the  mature  moths  of  the  first  or  spring  brood.  The 
earliest  of  these  moths  appear  in  the  orchards  about  the  time  when  the 
trees  are  in  full  bloom,  but  the  majority  do  not  emerge  until  later,  or 
when  the  fruit  is  approximately  £  inch  through  at  the  widest  part. 
The  difference  in  time  of  the  emergence  of  moths  may  be  due  partly  to 
the  length  of  time  the  larvae  have  been  in  hibernation,  but  more  likely 
to  a  difference  in  their  location,  some  being  in  warm,  sunny  situations, 
and  others  in  cool,  shady  places  which  have  a  tendency  to  retard  their 
development.  The  mortality  among  hibernating  larva?  is  often  very 
great,  but  varies  with  seasons.  As  the  abundance  of  first  brood  larvae 
in  the  fruit  depends  upon  the  number  of  hibernating  larva?  that  survive 
the  winter  season,  the  natural  mortality  is  exceedingly  important,  and 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  number  of  applications  of  a  spray  for  the 
control  of  the  insect. 


158 


372  PEAR    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 


Eggs  are  laid  by  the  female  moths  shortly 
after  mating,  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves 
surrounding  a  pear  or  cluster  of  pears,  or  on  the 
skin  of  the  pears  themselves.  They  are  deposited 
singly.  Most  of  the  larvas  upon  emergence  from 
the  eggs  enter  the  fruit  by  way  of  the  calyx  and 
feed  within  until  full  grown,  when  they  emerge 
for  pupation.  Thus  the  life  cycle  of  the  first  brood 
is  completed,  and  a  second  develops  in  a  similar 
way.  In  some  states,  and  possibly  in  some  parts 
of  California,  there  is  at  least  a  partial  third  brood 
FIG.  165.  codling  during  the  season.  The  time  occupied  by  the 

moth  larva  in  pear.       -i-™  ,  .,     .        -,        ,  .     J       .  , 

different  stages  in  their  development  varies  with 
locality  and  season.*  In  this  general  discussion  it  does  not  seem  best  to 
go  into  details  regarding  the  pest's  life  history. 

Control. 

The  entrance  of  the  newly-hatched  larvae  by  way  of  the  calyx  or 
blossom  end  of  the  pear  has  made  control  by  means  of  poison  sprays 
directed  into  the  calyx  cavities  exceedingly  effective.  From  one  to 
three  applications  are  necessary  for  the  complete  control  of  the  pest. 
Arsenate  of  lead  in  paste  form  at  the  strength  of  3  to  4  pounds  to  100 
gallons  of  water,  or  in  powder  form  1J  to  2  pounds  to  100  gallons  of 
water  are  sufficient.  If  scab  is  also  present  this  spray  is  combined  for 
convenience  with  a  fungicide,  as  recommended  for  the  control  of  this 
disease,  but  in  the  absence  of  scab  or  other  fungous  diseases  only  the 
arsenate  of  lead  is  necessary.  There  are  other  arsenicals,  e.  g.,  Paris 
green  and  arsenite  of  zinc,  that  may  be  used  instead  of  arsenate  of  lead, 
but  the  latter  is  now  considered  standard. 

Application. 

The  first  application  for  codling  moth  should  be  made  when  the  petals 
have  dropped.  A  delay  of  a  few  days  will  not  materially  interfere  with 
codling  moth  control,  as  the  pear  does  not  close  its  calyces  quickly;  in 
fact,  many  varieties  do  not  close  at  all.  The  Bartlett  in  most  cases  has 
an  open  calyx  into  which  the  spray  may  be  directed  any  time  during 
the  season.  Spraying  should  not  be  neglected  until  hatching  of  the 
codling  moth  eggs  has  begun  and  for  fear  that  it  might  be  too  late  for 
the  earliest  worms  the  safest  rule  is  to  make  the  first  application  as  soon 
as  the  petals  have  fallen.  A  second  spray  should  follow  in  about  three 
weeks'  time  and  a  third  in  two  weeks  from  the  second.  Spraying  .in 
each  case  must  be  done  with  the  greatest  of  care.  The  first  spray 
should  result  in  practically  every  calyx  cup  receiving  a  supply  of  the 
poison.  The  later  applications  are  designed  to  cover  the  small  fruit 
with  the  poison  also,  so  that  the  small  percentage  of  worms  entering  the 
side  may  be  killed. 

*S.  W.  Foster,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  Bulletin  No.  97,  Part  II,  of 
the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  states  that  "the  codling  moth  in  California  presents 
certain  differences  in  its  life  history  as  compared  with  what  is  true  of  the  East, 
principally  a  lengthening  of  the  respective  stages  due  to  a  lower  mean  temperature 
during  their  period  of  development,  especially  in  the  first  generation."  Mr.  Foster's 
records  were  made  in  Contra  Costa  County,  where  he  worked  with  the  codling  moth 
in  pear  orchards. 

154 


i'KAK    (WOWING    IN    CALIFORNIA.  373 

MEALY  BUG  (Pseudococcus  sp.)- 

In  a  limited  area  bordering  on  the  Sacramento  River,  near  Courtland, 
some  species  of  mealy  bug  has  for  several  seasons  past  been  of  consider- 
able economic  importance.  This  pest  does  its  principal  damage  in  the 
calyx  end  of  the  pear.  It  enters  the  basin  where  feeding  takes  place, 
with  the  result  that  the  juices  of  the  pear  ooze  out,  forming  a  sticky 
mass  of  gum.  The  egg  masses  are  laid  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of 
the  trees.1 

Control. 

Very  successful  control  has  been  accomplished  by  means  of  miscible 
oil  sprays,  Formula  No.  7.* 

BEAN  THRIPS   (Heliothrips  fasciatus). 

Late  in  the  summer  season  pear  growers  frequently  notice  consider- 
able injury  from  thrips.  Generally  the  species  present  at  this  time  is 
the  common  bean  thrips.  This  species  is  recognized  by  its  black  color 
and  white  tips  to  the  antennae  and  the  white  markings  at  the  base  of 
wings. 

Control. 

Essig,  in  "Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects  of  California,"  recom- 
mends the  use  of  a  formula  prepared  by  J.  R.  Watson  of  the  Florida 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  which  is  as  follows : 

Commercial  Lime  Sulphur  (33°  Baum6) 5£  gallons 

Black  Leaf  "40" 14     fluid  ounces 

Water -  200     gallons 

Successful  control  may  also  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  Formula 
No.  3  or  11. 

BLACK  SCALE   (Saissetia  oleae). 

Occasionally  a  bad  infestation  of  black  scale  occurs  on  pear  trees. 
This  pest  is  easily  recognized  by  its  characteristic  black  color  and  the 
presence  of  an  "H"  shaped  marking  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  scale. 
The  young  scales  first  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  affected  trees,  later 
detaching  themselves  and  going  to  the  branches.  The  winter  season  is 
spent  in  a  partially  grown  condition. 

Control. 

A  dormant  spray,  using  Formula  No.  5,  6  or  7,  applied  any  time 
after  the  trees  become  dormant  in  the  fall  and  before  growth  begins  in 
the  spring  will  bring  about  effective  control. 

BRANCH  AND  TWIG   BORER   (Polycaon  confertus). 

This  borer  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  state  but  can  not  be 
considered  extremely  serious.  The  adult  is  a  small  brown  beetle  which 
lays  its  eggs  on  the  twigs  of  various  kinds  of  trees,  including  the  pear. 

*  Formulae  for  control  on  pages  183  to  188. 

'This  species  is  apparently  the  same  as  the  grape  mealy  bug,  Pseudococcus  bakeri. 

158 


374  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

The  larvae  usually  bore  into  small  crotches,  forming  a  characteristic 
round-shaped  burrow.  Often  injury  is  severe  enough  to  cause  the  twigs 
to  break.  This  pest  is  usually  more  serious  in  the  neighborhood  of 
brush  piles,  in  which  it  hibernates  and  breeds. 

Control. 

Nothing  in  the  way  of  a  spray  can  be  used  effectively  for  this  pest; 
in  fact  it  is  not  serious  enough  to  make  radical  measures  necessary. 
Cleaning  up  of  all  brush  piles,  orchard  prunings,  etc.  is  the  most  import- 
ant thing  in  connection  with  its  control. 

BUR  CLOVER  OR  COW   PEA  APHIS   (Aphis  medicaginis). 

Aphids  are  often  exceedingly  troublesome  in  the  pear  orchard  and 
because  of  the  fact  that  they  may  spread  the  blight  from  tree  to  tree, 
control  becomes  absolutely  necessary  in  orchards  where  the  blight  is 
present.  This  species  is  black  in  color,  with  distinct  white  markings  on 
the  legs.  It  commonly  feeds  on  leguminous  plants,  sweet  clover,  bur 
clover,  etc.,  attacking  pear  trees  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  its  common 
food  plants.  It  feeds  upon  the  tender  growing  tips  of  the  pear  twigs, 
sometimes  becoming  exceedingly  abundant. 

Control. 

Formula  No.  3  may  be  used  very  successfully  in  the  control  of  this 
pest,  as  well  as  other  aphids  which  affect  the  pear. 

CALIFORNIA  PEAR  SAWFLY   (Gymnonychus  californicus). 

In  the  pear  orchards  of  the  Central  California  Coast  Region  slight 
damage  is  often  done  to  the  foliage  of  pears  by  a  little  green  larva  which 
eats  a  characteristic  circular-shaped  hole  in  the  leaves.  Frequently 
feeding  begins  on  the  margin,  the  larvae  gradually  eating  back  in  the 
manner  shown  in  Fig.  166.  The  adult  insect  is  a  little  shiny  black 
fly  with  yellow  markings,  one  of  many  species  of  a  family  of  insects 
known  as  sawflies. 

Control. 

Use  Formula  No.  12. 

CHERRY  OR  CALICO  SCALE   (Lecanium  cerasorum). 

In  some  of  the  counties  surrounding  the  San  Francisco  Bay  this 
scale,  which  is  an  exceedingly  large,  showy,  black  and  white  species,  is 
common. 

Control. 

Control  measures  are  not  usually  necessary,  although  when  the  pest 
becomes  abundant  enough  to  be  destructive  either  Formula  No.  5, 
6  or  7  may  be  used. 


156 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


FIG.  166.     Larvae  and  characteristic  injury  of  California 
pear  sawfly,     Gymnonychus  californicus. 

COTTONY  CUSHION  OR  FLUTED  SCALE  (Icerya  purchasi). 

To  the  writer's  knowledge  this  species  has  never  been  found  injuring 
pear  trees  except  in  that  part  of  the  Central  California  Coast  Region 
included  in  Santa  Clara  County.  In  certain  orchards  there  it  has 
become  exceedingly  destructive  particularly  on  Winter  Nelis,  and  is  con- 
sidered by  the  pear  growers  to  be  one  of  the  most  serious  pests  of  this 
fruit.  It  attacks  the  smaller  twigs,  devitalizing  them,  and,  as  is  char- 
acteristic of  all  scale  insects,  the  trees  are  covered  with  a  sticky  honey- 
dew.  This  same  pest  occurs  generally  in  citrus  orchards  but  is  there 
controlled  by  its  natural  enemy,  Vedalia  cardinalis.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  in  the  case  of  the  pear  the  Vedalia  can  not  long  exist  because  of 
heavy  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  for  the  control  of  codling  moth. 
This  material,  while  it  has  no  effect  upon  the  cottony  cushion  scale,  does 
poison  the  ladybirds,  consequently  the  scale  has  a  chance  to  develop. 

Control. 

Much  experimental  work  has  been  done  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  by 
the  county  horticultural  commissioner  in  an  effort  to  determine  effective 
methods  of  control.  Thus  far  nothing  has  been  discovered  that  is 
altogether  satisfactory.  More  or  less  good  can  be  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  oil  sprays,  Formulae  Nos.  5,  6  and  7. 


EUROPEAN   FRUIT  LECANIUM   (Lecanium  corni). 

This  Lecanium  is  of  quite  common  occurrence  on  pear  trees,  and  but 
for  the  presence  of  the  little  parasite,  Comys  fusca,  it  would  become  very 


157 


376 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


destructive.  The  appearance  of  this  species  is  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  black  scale.  It  is,  however,  brown  instead  of  black,  and  does  not 
have  the  distinguishing  "H"  like  marking  on  the  dorsum. 

Control. 

Spray  trees  very  thoroughly  during  the  dormant  season  with  For- 
mula No.  6  or  7. 


EUROPEAN  OR  ITALIAN  PEAR  SCALE  (Epidiaspis  pyricola). 

The  Italian  pear  scale  is  recognized  by  characteristic  pits  or  depres- 
sions which  it  forms  in  the  bark  of  affected  trees.  The  color  of  the 
scale  is  almost  exactly  that  of  the  branches,  and  as  it  is  very  flat  its 
presence  would  not  be  easily  detected  but  for  the  pitting  mentioned. 

In  the  Santa  Clara  Valley 
this  insect  is  quite  common, 
though  not  often  very  de- 
structive. 

Control. 

Use  Formula  No.  1,  2,  5, 
6  or  7. 

FLAT-HEADED  APPLE-TREE 

BORER 
(Chrysobothris  femorata). 

Young  pear  trees  are  fre- 
quently badly  injured  or 
killed  by  this  common  species 
of  borer.  It  is  sometimes 
known  as  the  sun  borer, 
because  of  the  fact  that  it 
commonly  enters  trees  that 
have  been  sun-scalded.  In 
fact,  unless  a  tree  has  been 
injured  or  weakened  in  some 
manner  it  is  seldom  attacked 
by  this  species  of  borer. 
Therefore  preventive  meas- 
ures are  more  necessary  than 
anything  else  in  connection 
with  the  control  of  this  pest. 
The  species  is  recognized  by 
the  long,  segmented,  tapering 
body  with  large  V-shaped 
head. 

Control. 

Protect  the  trunks  of  young 
trees  by  whitewash,  Formula 


FIG.    167. 


Italian    pear    scale,    Epidiaspis 
pyricola. 


No.  21,  or  by  tree  protectors.     These  are  made  either  of  yucca  or  heavy 
paper. 


158 


PEAR    GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


377 


FRUIT-TREE    LEAF    ROLLER    (Archips    argyrospila). 

Under  certain  conditions  the  leaf  roller  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 
pests  of  the  pear.  Its  presence  in  the  orchard  may  be  recognized  during 
the  winter  season  by  little  masses  of  brown-colored  eggs,  somewhat 
circular  in  form  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  more  or  less,  in  diameter. 
The  larvae  feed  on  the  foliage  and  young  fruit,  sometimes  becoming 
so  abundant  as  to  practically  defoliate  the  trees. 


PIG.  168.     Eggs  of  fruit  tree  leaf  roller,  Archips 
argyrospila. 

Control. 

Perfect  control  results  from  an  application  during  the  dormant 
season  of  Formula  No.  7. 

FROSTED  SCALE   (Lecanium  pruinosum). 

This  scale  somewhat  resembles  the  black  scale  but  is  larger,  more 
smooth  in  outline  and  is  covered  with  a  whitish  frosty-like  material, 
from  which  it  derives  its  common  name.  It  has  been  known  to  do 
considerable  injury  in  pear  orchards  near  the  San  Francisco  Bay. 


Control. 


Use  Formula  No.  5,  6  or  7. 


GREEN  APPLE  APHIS  (Aphis  pomi). 

Young  pear  trees  are  sometimes  affected  by  this  species  of  aphis, 
which  is  rarely  seen  on  older  trees.  It  is  the  common  plant  louse  of  the 
apple,  which  it  much  prefers  as  a  food  plant.  This  is  a  small  green 
species,  with  a  very  characteristic  odor,  which  enables  one  to  detect 
its  presence  and  to  identify  it. 


Control. 


Use  Formula  No.  3  or  4. 


LESSER  SHOT-HOLE  BORER  (Xyleborus  xylographus). 

Pear  growers  sometimes  find  little  holes  at  the  base  of  buds  or  tun- 
neled into  the  heart  of  branches.     These  are  made  by  the  adults  and 
of  a  very  small  black  beetle,  occasionally  becoming  quite  de- 


159 


§78  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

structive.  Like  many  other  borers  it  prefers  trees  that  are  weak, 
dying  or  dead.  Hibernation  and  breeding  take  place  in  piles  of 
orchard  primings. 

Control. 

It  is  important,  if  this  pest  is  trouble-some,  to  remove  all  dead  wood 
from  the  orchard  and  vicinity. 

MELON  APHIS  (Aphis  gossypii). 

The  melon  aphis  resembles  very  closely  Aphis  medicaginis.  It  works 
on  cotton,  melons  and  many  other  plants,  as  well  as  the  pear.  On 
the  latter  it  becomes  abundant  during  certain  seasons,  its  injury  being 
exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  other  species  mentioned. 

Control. 

Use  Formula  No.  3. 

OYSTER-SHELL  SCALE   (Lepidosaphes  ulmi). 

This  scale,  while  rarely  found  in  California,  has  been  known  to  occur 
on  young  pear  trees.  It  is  distinguished  by  a  long,  curved,  shell-like 
body.  Like  other  scales,  when  unchecked  it  sometimes  becomes  so 
abundant  that  a  tree  is  practically  covered  with  it. 

Control. 

Use  Formula  No.  1,  2,  5,  6  or  7. 

PEAR-LEAF   BLISTER   MITE   (Eriophyes  pyri). 

In  the  Sierra  Nevada  Foothill  and  Mountain  Region  of  California 
the  blister  mite  is  a  serious  pest,  especially  on  younger  pear  trees. 
Also  pears  of  the  Northern  and  Central  California  Interior  Valley 
Region  are  subject  to  the  attack  of  this  pest,  but  not  to  the  same 
extent  as  those  in  the  previously  mentioned  region.  The  injury  is 
distinguished  early  in  the  season  on  the  foliage  by  small  reddish 


FIG.  169.     Pear  leaf  blister  mite.      (After  Nalepa  from  Parrott.) 

blister-like  swellings  which  later  turn  black  and  dry  up.  An  examina- 
tion of  these  little  blister-like  patches  will  reveal  the  presence  of  a 
little  hole  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf,  by  which  the  mites  enter 
and  leave  the  blister.  Hibernation  takes  place  under  bud  scales.  The 
pest  is  almost  microscopic  in  size  and  is  rarely  seen  by  the  average 
orchardists.  The  injury  to  fruit  is  sometimes  severe  and  consists  in 
russeting  and  distortion. 

160 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 
Control. 


379 


Heavy  spraying  with  Formula  No.  1  or  2,  applied  just  as  the  buds 
are  beginning  to  swell  in  the  spring  will  control  perfectly.     The  time 


FIG.  170.     Injury  to  pears  and  leaves  from  blister  mite. 

of  application  is  very  important,  as  once  the  larvaa  begin  feeding  in  the 
tissues  of  the  unfolded  leaves  no  spray  will  reach  them.  The  applica- 
tion must  be  made  just  as  the  mites  are  leaving  their  winter  quarters 
at  the  time  mentioned. 


11—37406 


101 


380 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 


FIG.    171. 


Pears   injured  while   in   bloom   by 
blister  mite. 


PEAR-LEAF   RUST  MITE   (Epitrimerus  pyri). 

This  pest  was  first  discovered  in  California  by  the  writer  in  1913. 
Its  occurrence  is  recognized  by  a  dry  rusty  appearance  of  the  foliage  of 
pear  trees,  especially  younger  trees  from  one  to  five  years  of  age.  It  is 
even  smaller  than  the  blister-mite  and  singly  can  not  be  recognized  with 
the  naked  eye.  Sometimes  they  are  so  abundant  on  foliage  that  clus- 
ters of  them  may  be  seen  as  little  dust-like  markings  on  the  surface  of 
leaves.  Hibernation  takes  place  underneath  bud  scales,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  blister-mite. 

Control. 
Formula  No.  8,  applied  any  time  that  the  pest  appears,  will  control. 


FIG.   172.     Pear  leaf  rust  mite.      (After  Nalepa  from  Parrott.) 

PEAR  THRIPS  (Taeniothrips  pyri). 

In  the  Central  California  Coast  Eegion  and  in  the  Northern  and  Cen- 
tral California  Interior  Valley  Region,  or  that  portion  lying  along  the 
Sacramento  River,  this  pest  is  probably  the  most  serious  insect  pest  of 
the  pear.  Hibernation  takes  place  in  the  soil  and  early  in  the  spring 

162 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


381 


the  little  black  adult  thrips  emerge,  feeding  upon  blossom  buds  and 
blossoms  of  the  pear.  At  this  time  eggs  are  laid,  from  which  there 
develops  a  brood  of  whitish-colored  larvae,  which  feed  upon  the  leaves 
and  fruit.  The  principal  injury  is  done  by  the  adults,  which  frequently 
are  so  abundant  that  the  blossom  clusters  dry  up  and  fail  to  bring  forth 
any  blossom  or  fruit. 

Control. 

Use  Formula  No.  11.  Application  must  be  made  first  for  the  adults 
as  the  blossom  buds  are  opening.  Later  applications  may  be  necessary 
for  the  larvaa. 


FIG.   173.     Injury  to  pear  foliage  from  thrips,   Twniothrips  pyri. 
PERNICIOUS  OR  SAN  JOSE  SCALE  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus). 

It  is  rather  strange  that  the  first  state  in  the  Union  where  San  Jose 
scale  was  discovered  should  be  so  free  from  it  at  this  time.  The  fact 
remains  that  this  pest  is  of  little  consequence  in  California.  Occasion- 
ally pear  trees  are  attacked,  the  injury  of  the  pest  being  recognized  by 

163 


382 


PEAR   GROWING  IN    CALIFORNIA. 


reddish  spots  on  the  twigs  and  fruit.  An  examination  of  these  spots 
will  reveal  the  presence  of  the  little  gray-colored  or  black  scale  in  the 
center.  This  scale  breeds  so  rapidly  that  when  nothing  is  done  to 
control  it  it  may  kill  portions  of  trees,  if  not  entire  trees.  It  has  never 
been  seen  by  the  writer  abundant  enough  in  California  to  cause  great 
concern. 

Control. 

If  control  measures   are  found  necessary  Formula  No.   1,   2  or  7 
should  be  used. 


FIG.  174.     Severe  injury  to  fruit  and  twig  by  San  Jose  scale,  Aspidiotus  perniciosiis. 
RED-HUMPED   CATERPILLAR    (Schizura   concinna). 

In  the  fall  of  the  year  defoliation  of  portions  of  pear  trees  is  some- 
times noticed  and  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  red-humped  caterpillar, 
a  dark  colored  larva  with  coral-colored  markings  just  back  of  the  head. 
The  eggs  from  which  these  larvae  come  are  deposited  by  a  moth  on  the 
twigs  of  the  pear  or  other  trees.  Upon  hatching,  the  larvae  colonize  and 
confine  their  attack  usually  to  a  small  portion  of  the  tree. 

Control. 

Often  in  the  evening  or  early  morning  the  removal  of  a  twig  upon 
which  the  larvae  are  clustered  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  destroy  the 
whole  colony.  In  cases  where  the  infestation  is  bad  use  Formula  No.  12. 

164 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


383 


SHOT-HOLE   BORER  OR   FRUIT-TREE   BARK   BEETLE 

(Eccoptogaster  rugulosus). 

This  species  is  very  similar  to  the  lesser  shot-hole  borer  already  men- 
.tioned.     It  is  a  larger  species,  however,  with  like  habits. 


Control. 


Same  as  for  lesser  species. 


SPRING  CANKERWORM   (Paleacrita  vernata). 

Cankerworms  may  be  distinguished  from  other  species  of  moth  larvae 
that  feed  upon  fruit  trees  by  the  absence  of  all  but  two  pair  of  prolegs. 
They  are  green  or  brown  in  color.  Feeding  is  confined  to  the  foliage, 
which  may  be  destroyed  entirely  in  severe  cases. 

Control. 
Use  Formula  No.  3  or  12,  or  the  two  in  combination. 




FIG.  175.     Young  pear  tree  injured  by  root  aphis,  Eriosoma  pyricola. 
PEAR    ROOT  APHIS   (Eriosoma  pyricola). 

This  very  destructive  species  of  plant  louse  is  very  similar  to  the 
woolly  aphis  of  the  apple.  Unlike  the  apple  aphis,  however,  it  feeds 
entirely  upon  the  root  system  of  pear  trees.  Its  attack  is  confined  princi- 
pally to  the  very  small  fibrous  roots.  In  the  pear-growing  regions  north 

165 


384 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


of  Tehachapi  this  pest  occurs  commonly.  It  is  particularly  bad  in  some 
of  the  nonirrigated  orchards  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Foothill  and  Moun- 
tain Region  and  of  the  Northern  California  Coast  Region.  Affected 
trees  may  be  so  stunted  that  they  are  not  half  as  large  as  they  should  be 
for  their  age,  thus  seriously  interfering  with  their  production. 

Control. 

Little  can  be  done  to  rid  affected  trees  of  this  pest  after  they  have 
been  set  in  the  orchard.  Preventive  measures  consist  of  fumigation 
with  Formula  No.  19  before  the  trees  are  planted. 


FIG.   176. 


Large  pear  tree  showing  injury  from  an  abundance  of  root  aphis, 
Eriosoma  pyricola. 


PEAR  SLUG    (Caliroa  cerasi). 

One  of  the  most  commonly  distributed  pests  of  the  pear  and  one  that 
is  not  lacking  in  importance  where  orchards  are  not  sprayed  with 
arsenicals  is  the  little  deep  green  slimy  larva  which  devours  the  upper 
surface  of  the  foliage.  Not  infrequently,  where  no  control  measures 
are  used,  this  insect  completely  defoliates  the  trees.  In  California, 
where  spraying  is  generally  practiced  for  codling  moth,  orchards  that 
have  come  into  bearing  are  not  troubled,  while  young  trees  which  do 
not  require  an  arsenical  spray  for  codling  moth  are  frequently  badly 
damaged. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  little  black,  two-winged  fly,  which  to  the  ento- 
mologist is  known  as  a  sawfly.  By  means  of  a  small,  saw-like  ovipositor, 
from  which  this  family  of  insects  derives  its  name,  the  female  prepares 
a  semicircular  slit  in  the  upper  surface  of  a  leaf,  depositing  an  egg  in 
this  slit  just  beneath  the  epidermis,  resulting  in  a  blister-like  blemish. 

160 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


385 


In  a  few  days'  time  this  egg  hatches  into  the  characteristic  slug-like 
larva  which  immediately  begins  feeding.  Their  attack  begins  quite 
early  in  the  season,  about  May.  Only  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaves 
are  fed  upon,  but  sufficient  tissue  is  removed  so  that  they  are  killed 
where  excessive  feeding  takes  place.  The  larvae,  when  full  grown, 
pupate  in  the  soil  and  emerge  as  flies  for  a  second  generation  after  mid- 
summer. The  winter  is  spent  in  the  pupal  stage  in  the  soil  of  the 
orchard. 

Control. 

There  are  few  pests  that  succumb  to  control  measures  as  easily  as 
this  one.     As  has  already  been  stated,  trees  that  are  sprayed  with  lead 


FIG.  177.     Eggs  of  pear  slug,  Caliroa  cerasi. 

arsenate  and  other  arsenical  sprays  are  not  injured,  because  of  the 
susceptibility  of  the  larvae  to  poisoning  by  arsenicals.  Ordinarily,  one 
spraying  for  the  first  brood  will  eliminate  the  trouble  for  a  season. 
Should  a  second  be  necessary  it  should  be  applied  as  the  second  brood 
begins  its  attack.  Spraying  with  "Black  Leaf  40"  or  any  other  good 
contact  insecticide  is  just  as  effective  as  an  arsenical  in  killing  the  larvae, 
but  has  no  effect  on  the  eggs,  consequently,  when  contact  sprays  are  used 
the  dose  should  be  repeated  in  a  week  or  ten  days'  time.  Dusting  has 
been  used  effectively  in  the  control  of  pear  slugs.  Its  effectiveness  is 
due  to  the  sliminess  of  the  larvae  which  causes  the  dust  to  adhere  to 
the  surface  of  their  bodies,  eventually  resulting  in  death  either  by 


167 


386  PEAR   GROWING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 

drying  up  or  suffocation.  Road  dust  and  air-slaked  lime  are  both  very 
effective,  their  practical  use  decreasing  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
trees.  The  application  of  any  insecticide  is  greatly  facilitated  because 
of  the  habit  of  feeding  on  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves,  making  it 
absolutely  unnecessary  to  pay  any  attention  to  spraying  from  under- 
neath. While  easily  controlled,  this  pest  should  not  be  neglected,  as 
frequent  defoliation  may  result  in  the  death  of  a  tree. 


FIG.    178.      Larvae    and    characteristic 
injury  of  pear  slug,   Caliroa  cerasi. 

ANTS. 

Various  species  of  this  troublesome  pest  are  found  in  pear  orchards, 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  the  spread  of  pear  blight.  In  crawling  up  the 
trunks  and  over  the  branches  blight  bacteria  are  carried  from  live 
cankers  and  deposited  in  blossoms  and  various  other  places  where  they 
can  gain  entrance  and  produce  the  disease.  Once  the  germs  are  placed 
in  the  blossoms  by  insects  visiting  the  holdover  cankers  there  is  nothing 
to  prevent  wholesale  spread  by  bees  and  other  blossom  feeding  insects. 

Control. 

Tree  tanglefoot  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a  substance  that  will 
prevent  ants  and  other  insects  from  crawling  up  the  trunks.  The 
following  formula  of  the  II.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology  has  been  used 
very  successfully  in  the  control  of  the  Argentine  ant,  and  no  doubt  will 
prove  equally  as  effective  in  the  case  of  other  species. 

Prepare  a  sirup : 

Granulated  sugar 12  pounds 

Water 7  pints 

Tartaric  acid    (crystallized)    i  ounce 

Boil  for  30  minutes.     Allow  to  cool. 

Dissolved  sodium  arsenite   (C.  P.) f  ounce 

In  hot  water ; 1  pint 

Cool.     Add  poison  solution  to  sirup  and  stir  well. 

Add  to  the  poisoned  sirup: 

Honey , 2  pounds 

Mix  thoroughly. 

169 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA.  387 

H.  S.  Smith,  in  his  work  of  poisoning  Argentine  ants  in  the  citrus 
groves  of  Los  Angeles  County,  recommends  the  use  of  either  one  or 
one-half  pound  paper  bags  as  containers  for  the  poison.  These  are 
treated  with  paraffine  and  tacked  to  the  trunks  of  the  trees  after  putting 
in  the  liquid  and  folding  the  top  downward.  The  ants  enter  by  means 
of  holes  punched  in  the  bags  above  the  height  that  it  is  desired  the 
poison  should  reach. 

RED   SPIDERS    (Bryobia   pratensis  and  Tetranychus  sps.). 

The  red  spiders,  or  mites,  at  times  become  serious  in  the  pear  orchard. 
The  former  species,  more  commonly  known  in  California  as  the  almond 
mite,  spends  the  winter  on  the  trees  in  the  form  of  small,  red,  glassy 
eggs,  plainly  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  usually  deposited  about  the 
buds  or  in  the  smaller  crotches.  These  hatch  with  the  opening  of  the 
buds  and  the  tiny  mites  immediately  begin  their  destructive  work,  which 
is  confined  very  largely  to  the  spring  months.  Later  in  the  season  or 
coincident  with  the  hot  weather  in  June  or  July,  appear  other  species  of 
the  web-spinning  mites  belonging  to  the  genus  Tetranychus.  The  most 
common  and  destructive  species  in  California  is  one  that  is  closely  allied 
to  Tetranychus  mytilaspidis,  the  citrus  species,  but  apparently  not  the 
same.  It  becomes  so  bad  that  frequently  more  or  less  defoliation  of  the 
trees  results  if  nothing  is  done  to  control  it.  This  species  also  winters 
in  the  egg  stage.  The  eggs  may  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
brown  mite  by  their  redder  color,  flattened  surface  with  central  stem, 
and  usually  sparse  occurrence  on  the  twigs  as  compared  to  those  of  the 
brown  mite.  The  common  red  spider,  Tetranychus  bimaculatus,  is 
frequently  found  on  pear  trees,  the  principal  difference  in  its  life  history 
lying  in  the  fact  that  it  hibernates  in  the  soil  during  the  winter  months. 

Injury. 

The  damage  consists  in  a  discoloration  and  drying  of  the  leaves  from 
which  the  sap  is  extracted.  Affected  foliage  presents  a  yellow,  mottled, 
sickly  appearance,  the  presence  of  black  spots  or  the  droppings  always 
being  in  evidence.  When  species  of  Tetranychus  are  present  there  is 
always  a  fine  web  spun  over  the  leaves.  This  collects  the  dust  during 
the  summer  time,  giving  voice  to  the  popular  opinion  that  dust  breeds 
mites. 

Control. 

If  eggs  of  the  two  species  which  winter  in  that  stage  occur  on  trees 
they  may  be  killed  by  an  oil  emulsion  spray  at  a  dormant  strength  in 
the  early  spring  when  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell.  Lime-sulphur 
applied  at  dormant  strength  is  also  effective,  but  in  this  case  the  spray 
has  no  effect  on  the  eggs,  killing  the  young  mites  as  they  hatch. 
Consequently  the  nearer  hatching  time  of  the  eggs  lime-sulphur  can 
be  applied,  the  better.  Lime-sulphur  retains  its  effectiveness  for  weeks 
after  the  application  providing  excessive  rains  do  not  wash  it  from  the 
trees. 

In  the  summer  time  all  species  can  be  controlled  by  applications  of 
''atomic"  sulphur,  "milled"  sulphur,  lime-sulphur,  in  fact,  sulphur, 
which  is  the  standard  remedy  for  mites,  is  effective  in  practically  every 


388  PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

form  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  dust  trees  or  other  plants  with 
flowers  of  sulphur. 

The  important  consideration  with  all  summer  treatments  is  the 
making  of  the  application  early  before  the  trees  have  been  damaged. 
Frequently  it  happens  that  some  injury  is  done  before  the  orchardist 
is  aware  that  the  pests  are  present.  Hot  dry  weather  is  favorable  to 
their  increase,  and  unirrigated  orchards  suffer  much  more  heavily  than 
irrigated,  which  are  more  vigorous  and  the  conditions  of  which  are  more 
unfavorable  for  mite  breeding. 

EELWORM    (Heterodera  radicicola). 

Frequently  the  roots  of  pear  and  other  nursery  trees  contain  small 
knots  or  swellings  as  a  result  of  the  attack  of  the  eelworm.  This  condi- 
tion is  known  as  root  knot  and  should  not  be  confused  with  crown  gall, 
which  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  Bacterial  and  Fungous  Diseases  of 
the  Pear.  The  so-called  eelworm  is  one  of  the  nematodes  or  flat-worms 
of  which  there  are  a  great  many  species.  Their  damage  is  always  worst 
in  light,  sandy  soils  and  in  the  heavier  soils  there  is  little  danger  from 
them.  At  times  this  pest  is  quite  serious,  causing  the  death  of  fibrous 
roots,  and  in  severe  cases  roots  of  considerable  size  may  be  injured  or 
killed.  It  is  a  very  general  feeder,  attacking  many  garden  vegetables 
as  well  as  fruit  trees,  berries  and  shrubbery,  therefore  its  introduction 
into  an  orchard  may  be  the  means  of  its  getting  started  on  other  things 
in  the  vicinity. 

Control. 

Control  measures  are  preventive  and  consist  in  a  careful  inspection 
of  nursery  trees.  When  found  to  be  infested  they  should  be  discarded 
unless  for  planting  in  heavy  soil  where  it  is  thought  that  the  pest  can 
not  thrive. 

RABBITS. 

In  many  parts  of  California  the  rabbit  pest  must  not  be  overlooked 
when  the  orchard  is  set.  Without  any  warning,  and  before  one  is 
aware  that  any  damage  is  being  done,  rabbits  frequently  play  havoc 
in  the  newly-set  orchard.  If  the  expense  of  a  rabbit-tight  fence,  the 
best  method  of  prevention,  is  considered  to  be  prohibitive,  young  trees 
may  be  protected  by  placing  a  cylinder  of  a  small-mesh  woven  wire 
about  the  trunks.  If  trees  are  low  headed  and  jackrabbits  are  present, 
protection  of  portions  of  lower  limbs  may  also  be  necessary,  as  these 
rabbits  can  reach  a  considerable  height  above  the  ground.  Instead  of 
woven  wire  the  ordinary  tree  protectors  of  heavy  paper  or  yucca  may 
be  used.  Whitewash  containing  aloes  (see  Formula  No.  20)  acts  as  a 
repellant  against  rabbits.  Without  the  aloes  whitewash  is  of  little  value. 
Salt,  which  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adhesive  with  whitewash,  should 
never  be  used  in  orchards  where  the  rabbits  can  get  in  as  it  attracts 
them,  rendering  the  use  of  the  wash  extremely  dangerous. 


170 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  389 

GOPHERS. 

Pocket  gophers -are  frequent  orchard  depredators.  They  feed  upon 
tender  roots  in  the  soil  and  any  kind  of  a  fruit  tree  is  apt  to  suffer  when 
they  are  present.  Trees  are  often  completely  girdled  from  gophers 
gnawing  away  the  bark  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Raisins 
and  root  vegetables,  such  as  sweet  potatoes,  parsnips  and  carrots, 
poisoned  with  strychnin  and  placed  in  their  runways  will  give  good 
results.  In  irrigated  orchards  gophers  are  not  usually  troublesome 
because  of  drowning. 

SQUIRRELS. 

The  California  ground  squirrel,  Citellus  beecheyi  and  varieties,  is 
not  usually  considered  to  be  much  of  an  orchard  pest,  yet  the  writer 
has  often  seen  their  holes  in  abundance  among  orchard  trees,  some- 
times certain  trees  being  practically  undermined  with  the  burrows. 
The  poisoned  barley  formula  of  the  United  States  Biological  Survey 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  prepared  as  follows,  always  controls 
this  pest : 

Formula. 

Barley,   recleaued   grain — 10  quarts 

Strychnin    (powdered   alkaloid) 1  ounce 

Bicarbonate  of  soda  (baking  soda) 1  ounce 

Saccharin 1/10  ounce 

Heavy  corn  sirup i  pint 

Thin  starch  paste f  pint 

Glycerin 1  tablespoonful 

In  a  clean  vessel  mix  thoroughly  1  ounce  of  powdered  strychnin 
(alkaloid),  1  ounce  of  common  baking  soda,  and  TV  ounce  of  saccharin. 
Crush  all  lumps  of  the  soda  with  mixing  spoon.  To  this  add  J  pint  of 
heavy  corn  sirup  and  stir  thoroughly  to  a  smooth,  creamy  paste  free 
from  lumps.  Over  this  pour  f  pint  of  thin  hot  starch  paste  and  stir 
well.  (The  starch  paste  is  made  by  dissolving  1  heaping  tablespoonful 
of  dry  gloss  starch  in  a  little  cold  water  which  is  then  added  to  f  pint  of 
boiling  water.  Boil  and  stir  constantly  until  a  clear  thin  paste  is 
formed.)  Add  the  tablespoonful  of  glycerin  and  stir  thoroughly, 
making  sure  that  none  of  the  heavy  sirup  paste  still  sticks  to  the  bottom 
of  the  container.  Pour  this  mixture  over  16  quarts  of  good,  cleaned 
barley  and  mix  well  so  that  each  grain  is  coated. 

For  mixing  small  quantities  an  ordinary  galvanized  wash  tub  is 
convenient.  For  larger  quantities  a  tight,  smooth  box  may  be  used, 
and  the  mixing  may  be  done  with  a  spade. 

Each  quart  of  the  poisoned  grain  is  sufficient  for  40  to  50  baits. 
This  quantity  scattered  along  squirrel  trails,  or  on  clean,  hard  places 
on  the  surface  about  the  holes,  will  not  endanger  stock. 

N.  B. — Strychnin  in  any  form  other  than  the  powdered  strychnin 
alkaloid  is  not  effective  in  the  above  formula. 

Caution. 

All  poison  containers  and  all  uncleaned  utensils  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  poisons  should  be  kept  plainly  labeled  and  out  of  reach  of 
children,  irresponsible  persons,  and  live  stock. 

171 


390  PEAR   GROWING  IN    CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THINNING,  PICKING  AND  PACKING. 

THINNING. 

The  necessity  for  thinning  pears  of  the  Bartlett  variety  is  usually  not 
great  because  of  the  fact  that  several  pickings  are  ordinarily  made,  and 
pears  that  are  too  small  at  the  time  of  the  first  picking  will  attain  a 
good  ma-rketable  size  by  the  time  of  some  later  picking.  The  first 
picking  of  Bartletts  may  be  considered  as  a  thinning  process.  At  this 
time  fruit  that  has  attained  2 J  to  2J  inches  is  removed.  The  removal 
of  this  fruit  relieves  the  frequently  overcrowded  condition  of  the  trees 
and  enables  the  remaining  fruit  to  make  a  satisfactory  growth. 

Other  varieties  may  require  early  thinning  for  the  best  results.  This 
is  especially  true  of  later  maturing  sorts  and  of  such  small  varieties  as 
Winter  Nelis.  This  variety  has  a  tendency  to  overbear  at  the  expense 
of  size,  and  heavy  thinning  may  be  necessary  in  order  that  the  pears 
may  be  as  large  as  the  market  demands.  In  general,  pears  require  less 
thinning  than  apples  and  peaches,  but  under  certain  conditions  with 
certain  varieties  the  practice  may  be  followed  to  advantage,  and  the 
individual  grower  must  determine  whether  or  not  it  will  be  profitable 
for  him  to  thin  his  crop. 

In  the  case  of  very  young  trees  bearing  their  first  crop  thinning  to 
remove  an  overload  will  pay.  The  tendency  to  allow  trees  to  bear  all 
that  they  can  possibly  hold  when  very  young  will  usually  result  in  the 
sacrifice  of  growth  and  vitality.  Therefore,  while  a  reasonably  heav3r 
crop  will  not  hurt  thrifty  trees  when  they  first  come  into  bearing,  care 
must  be  exercised  that  they  do  not  overload,  with  danger  of  permanent 
stunting  and  consequent  detriment  to  future  productivity  and  growth. 

PICKING. 

The  picking  of  pears  to  be  packed  either  for  transportation  locally 
or  to  other  states  should  be  very  carefully  done  in  order  to  prevent 
bruising  and  subsequent  decay.  When  ready  to  pick  the  fruit  can  be 
removed  easily  from  the  trees  by  grasping  with  the  hand  and  quickly 
lifting  upward.  If  not  ready  the  stems  are  apt  to  break  instead  of 
separating  freely  from  the  fruit  spurs.  Seldom  are  the  larger  varieties, 
e.  g.,  Bartlett,  Cornice,  Anjou,  Howell  and  Bosc,  picked  before  they 
attain  a  size  of  2J  inches  or  more.  In  fact,  most  growers  aim  to  pack 
nothing  that  does  not  measure  at  least  2|  inches  through  the  widest 
part  of  the  shorter  axis.  As  it  is  rather  difficult,  for  inexperienced 
pickers  at  least,  to  gauge  the  sizes  properly,  especially  early  in  the 
season  when  picking  begins,  a  piece  of  heavy  wire  curved  into  a  ring 
at  both  ends  is  used.  One  ring  measures  2^  inches  and  the  other  2^ 
inches.  The  picker  carries  this  device  and  by  placing  either  one  or  the 
other  end  against  the  fruit  can  determine  very  accurately  the  proper 
size  to  pick.  If  he  is  instructed  to  pick  2J-inch  pears  and  over,  every- 
thing that  will  pass  through  the  2J-inch  ring  is  left  on  the  trees  and  the 
fruit  that  will  not  pass  through  is  picked.  In  case  he  has  instructions 

172 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA.  391 

to  pick  2^-ini'h  pears  it  is  simply  necessary  to  use  the  other  end  of 
the  ring. 

Pears  of  the  Bartlett  variety  are  picked  while  to  all  outward  appear- 
ances they  are  perfectly  green.  It  has  been  the  contention  of  leading 
Bartlett  pear  growers  of  California  for  years,  that  this  variety  is  ready 
to  pick  as  soon  as  it  attains  a  size  of  from  2J  to  2J  inches.  Their  con- 
tention is  partially  borne  out  by  an  experiment  carried  on  coopera- 
tively between  the  Department  of  Chemistry  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia and  the  State  Commission  of  Horticulture.*  In  1916  samples 
of  pears  were  collected  in  three  different  counties  of  the  state,  viz: 
Placer,  Contra  Costa  and  Sacramento,  at  different  times  throughout  the 
ripening  season.  The  samples  were  tested  for  sugar  and  acid  when 
received  at  Berkeley,  and  were  then  placed  in  storage  and  again  tested 
after  ripening.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  details  regarding  this  experi- 
ment here ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  the  earliest  picked  fruit,  which  seemed 
perfectly  green  when  packed  and  shipped,  ripened  well  and  proved  to 
be  practically,  if  not  wholly,  as  good  as  fruit  that  was  left  on  the  trees 
until  practically  ripe.  In  this  respect  the  pear  differs  strikingly  from 
other  fruits,  and  even  though  picked  when  the  amateur  would  certainly 
condemn  it  as  being  unfit  for  human  consumption,  the  changes  which 
it  undergoes  after  picking  result  in  an  increase  of  sugar,  and  as  the 
fruit  colors  a  beautiful  yellow,  and  remains  solid  without  any  shriveling, 
in  addition  to  having  a  good  flavor,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  picking 
it.  Just  how  green  it  can  be  removed  from  the  trees  and  still  ripen 
satisfactorily  is  a  question  that  is  yet  to  be  determined.  No  doubt  in 
time  there  will  be  some  test  other  than  that  of  size  that  will  govern 
the  time  of  picking  so  that  fruit  may  be  at  its  very  best  when  packed. 
The  experiment  mentioned  was  conducted  with  pears  of  the  Bartlett 
variety  and  therefore  does  not  apply  to  any  other  sort. 

After  removing  the  fruit  from  the  trees  in  the  manner  described  it 
should  be  carefully  deposited  in  the  picking  sack,  bucket  or  receptacle 
used  by  the  pickers.  Careless  pickers  are  apt  to  injure  fruit  so  that  it 
will  deteriorate  quickly  after  packing  and  much  stress  should  be  laid 
on  careful  handling.  From  the  picking  receptacle  the  pears  are  placed 
in  picking  boxes,  a  supply  of  which  should  be  conveniently  located  with 
respect  to  the  pickers. 

The  loaded  picking  boxes,  which  are  filled  to  a  height  just  below  the 
top  so  that  they  can  be  stacked  one  upon  the  other  without  bruising  the 
fruit,  are  hauled  to  the  packing  sheds  on  low  iron-wheeled  or  other 
suitable  wagons  or  sleds.  In  the  packing  shed  they  are  stacked,  one 
upon  the  other,  to  a  convenient  height  and  conveniently  located  with 
respect  to  the  sorting  and  packing  tables.  The  wise  grower  will  place 
much  stress  upon  the  convenience  in  arrangement  of  his  packing  shed. 
Boxes  are  somewhat  heavy  to  move  and  every  step  that  can  be  saved  in 
their  handling  increases  the  returns  to  the  grower. 

GRADING. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  description  given  of  the  picking  of  Bartlett 
pears  that  grading  is  really  done  in  some  cases  at  the  time  of  picking. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  however,  when  all  the  fruit  is  ready 

*Article  by  W.  V.  Cruess,  Monthly  Bulletin,  State  Commission  of  Horticulture, 
Vol.  5,  No.  12,  page  425. 

17S 


392 


PEAR   GROWING  IN    CALIFORNIA. 


to  be  picked,  trees  will  be  stripped  of  everything  and  there  is  no 
attempt  made  at  grading  in  the  orchard.  Such  fruit  should  be  graded 
in  the  packing  house,  and  now  that  the  "Fresh  Fruit  Standardization 
Law"  requires  packed  fruit  to  be  "practically  uniform"  in  size,  grad- 
ing is  absolutely  necessary  if  the  law  is  to  be  obeyed.  Mechanical 
graders  have  been  little  used  for  pears  in  California,  the  work  being 
done  by  hand  almost  entirely.  Packers  become  very  expert  in  grading 
and  without  the  use  of  rings  can  perform  the  work  quickly  and  accu- 
rately when  they  once  become  accustomed  to  the  sizes  that  they  are 
expected  to  select. 


FIG.  179.     Well-packed  box  of  pears. 
PACKING. 

Pears  are  packed  in  boxes  18  inches  long,  11J  inches  wide  and 
8J  inches  deep.  The  number  in  a  box  varies  according  to  the  size  and 
pack.  The  arrangement  of  the  pack  is  shown  in  Fig.  179.  Each  pear 
is  wrapped  neatly  in  a  piece  of  paper  and  placed  firmly  but  carefully 
in  the  box.  A  good  packer  nests  every  pear  in  such  a  way  that  there 
is  no  chance  for  its  moving  about  in  the  pack.  Solidness  is  the  princi- 


FIG.  180.    Packed  box  of  pears  showing  the  ordinary  excessive 
bulge. 


174 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA.  393 

pal  requisite  of  a  good  pack,  as  fruit  when  being  handled  or  hauled  in 
wagons  or  cars  after  packing,  must  not  have  a  chance  to  move  about  in 
the  pack,  for  if  it  does  the  rubbing  will  cause  bruising  and  result  in 
injuring  or  entirely  spoiling  the  fruit.  In  order  to  do  away  with  any 
possibility  of  looseness  in  the  pack,  California  pear  growers,  in  fact 
pear  growers  in  all  the  Western  states,  have  possibly  gone  to  the  extreme 
in  the  amount  of  fruit  placed  in  a  box.  Fig.  180  shows  a  bulge  such 
as  is  commonly  seen  on  pear  boxes.  This  bulge  often  measures  three 
inches  at  the  point  of  greatest  distention  on  the  top,  and  on  the  bottom 
there  is  a  bulge  which  is  nearly  as  great.  That  such  a  bulge  is  not 
necessary  is  the  opinion  of  many  practical  fruit  men.  Too  frequently 
the  pressure  necessary  to  put  a  cover  on  a  box  of  fruit  packed  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  180  results  in  appreciable  injury  by  bruising  a  large 
percentage  of  the  pears  in  the  box.  Instead  of  a  three-inch  bulge,  a 
f  -  or  1-inch  bulge  is  all  that  is  necessary  and  no  doubt  in  time  the  evils 
of  the  present  excessive  bulge  pack  will  be  corrected.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  too  slack  a  pack  is  more  liable  to  be  injured  in 
transportation  than  the  tight  pack,  and  there  must  be  enough  pressure 
of  the  cover  upon  the  fruit  to  hold  each  piece  in  place. 

On  one  end  of  the  packed  box  of  pears  an  attractive  label,  usually 
lithographed,  is  used.  This  label  is  required  by  law  to  have  printed  on 
it  the  variety,  the  name  and  address  of  the  packer,  and  the  name  of 
locality  where  the  fruit  was  grown.  In  addition,  the  minimum  net 
weight  must  be  stamped  on  this  label.  This  weight  is  generally  put  at 
45  pounds.  Most  of  the  boxes,  however,  weigh  more  than  50  pounds. 
Growers  have  particular  brands  of  their  own  which  are  also  indicated 
on  the  label.  Under  the  terms  of  the  standardization  act  passed  by  the 
legislature  in  1917,  pears  when  packed  shall  be  practically  free  from 
insects  and  fungous  diseases  and  shall  also  be  of  practically  uniform 
size,  quality  and  maturity. 

It  is  hard  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  new  standardization  law. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  since  it  became  effective  there  has 
been  a  decided  improvement  in  the  pear  pack  in  many  sections  of 
California.  The  wording  of  the  law  is  possibly  a  little  weak  and 
somewhat  indefinite,  making  it  necessary  for  the  horticultural  commis- 
sioner to  define  certain  terms  which,  if  defined  in  the  law,  would  make 
his  work  much  easier  and  more  effective.  For  example,  "practically 
free"  from  insects  and  fungous  diseases  is  not  interpreted  the  same 
by  all.  inspectors.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  "practically"  should 
mean  that  not  more  than  3  per  cent  of  the  fruit  is  infested,  and  that 
when  it  applies  to  size  the  variation  should  be  not  greater  than  f  of  an 
inch.  A  precedent  for  this  ruling  which  has  been  adopted  by  some 
of  the  horticultural  commissioners  is  found  in  the  apple  standard- 
ization act.  There  have  been  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  enforcing 
this  new  law  but  as  time  goes  on  these  difficulties  will  disappear 
and  eventually  the  standardization  law  will  mean  much  to  the  pear 
industry  as  well  as  to  the  other  deciduous  fruit  industries  of  California. 


175 


394  PEAR   GROWING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

CANNING  AND  DRYING  PEARS. 

THE  CANNING   INDUSTRY. 

The  Bartlett  pear  is  particularly  fine  for  canning  purposes  and 
California  may  justly  be  proud  of  the  quality  of  the  large  amount 
of  canned  fruit  that  goes  into  the  markets  each  season.  The  pear  can- 
ning industry  has  assumed  a  position  of  great  importance  in  the  state, 
and  the  pear  grower  is  generally  assured  of  good  prices  for  his  fruit 
whether  or  not  the  market  for  the  packed  product  is  satisfactory.  The 
canning  companies  pay  from  $30  to  $50  per  ton  for  suitable  pears, 
often  making  contracts  for  five  years  or  more,  by  which  they  agree  to 
pay  a  certain  price  each  year  for  the  entire  crop  of  an  orchard,  or 
for  a  specified  number  of  tons  of  a  certain  size  and  grade. 

Pears  for  canning  should  be  at  least  2^  inches  in  diameter,  the 
larger  sizes  always  being  preferred.  Fruit  smaller  than  2^  inches 
is  generally  rejected  by  the  canners.  It  is  a  common  practice  for  the 
growers  to  pack  their  pears  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  and 
later,  when  there  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  of  a  slump  in  the  market 
for  fresh  fruit,  everything  is  sold  to  the  canneries.  In  this  way  an 
entire  crop  may  be  sold  to  good  advantage  which,  if  only  the  market 
for  fresh  fruit  was  available,  would  often  bring  poor  returns. 

In  the  modern  cannery,  fruit  is  handled  in  a  careful  and  sanitary 
manner,  so  that  the  one  time  objection  to  canned  goods  because  of 
the  filth  that  often  surrounded  the  canning  is  eliminated  and  there 
need  be  no  more  fear  for  the  cleanliness  of  the  fruit  than  if  it  had 
been  prepared  in  the  kitchen  of  the  most  careful  housewife.  Both 
the  canning  and  the  drying  business  are  very  important  and  act  as  a 
sort  of  a  "safety  valve"  for  the  industry;  much  fruit  that  is  not 
fit  for  packing  can  be  utilized  to  good  advantage  for  drying  or  canning. 
In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  conserve  all  except  very  low  grade  fruit 
and  at  the  same  time  the  profits  to  the  growers  are  satisfactory. 

DRYING   PEARS. 

The  dried  pear  industry  has  become  exceedingly  important  in  Lake 
County,  where,  during  1917,  3,981  green  tons  were  dried.  While 
Lake  County  leads  all  other  counties  in  the  production  of  dried 
pears,  the  industry  is  by  no  means  confined  to  this  county.  In  Contra 
Costa,  Solano,  Napa,  Sonoma  and  Mendocino  counties  there  is  always 
more  or  less  fruit  dried  each  season,  while,  still  other  counties  dry  in 
small  amounts.  The  great  difference,  however,  between  the  industry  in 
Lake  County  and  all  others  where  pears  are  dried  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  Lake  County  orchards  are  remote  from  a  railroad  shipping 
point  (30  miles  or  more)  and  consequently  the  entire  output  of 
certain  fine  orchards  is  dried,  while  in  counties  where  transportation 
facilities  are  good  the  best  pears  are  usually  packed  or  sold  to  the  can- 
neries, and  only  -the  culls  are  dried. 


179 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


395 


DRYING  CULLS. 

In  connection  with  the  drying  of  culls  it  is  unfortunate  that  too 
frequently  the  work  is  done  with  little  care,  and  the  extremely  poor 
grade  fruit,  often  unfit  for  consumption,  is  dried  under  conditions 
that  are  not  sanitary  and  a  very  poor  product  is  the  result.  In  making 
a  trip  in  1915  through  some  of  the  counties  mentioned,  the  writer  was 
impressed  with  the  fine  grade  of  certain  fruit  and  it  must  be  admitted 
very  much  disgusted  with  the  poor  grade  of  other  fruit  which,  in 
the  first  place,  was  half  rotten  and  not  fit  to  dry,  and  which,  in  the 
second  place,  was  being  dried  by  Orientals  in  the  midst  of  dust,  flies 
and  filth  of  all  kinds  which  had  a  tendency  to  take  away  all  of  one's 


Culling  pears  from  the  drying  trays. 

appetite  for  dried  pears.  The  dried  pear,  when  properly  prepared, 
is  a  fine  product,  and  the  kind  that  Lake  County  produces,  when 
rightly  cooked,  compares  favorably  with  any  other  kind  of  dried  fruit, 
and  were  it  not  for  the  poorer  class  of  fruit  that  is  being  treated  in  the 
manner  described,  the  product,  as  a  whole,  would  become  much  more 
popular. 

The  market  for  dried  pears  could  undoubtedly  be  increased  greatly 
by  the  elimination  of  the  poorer  grades,  or  by  a  system  of  standard- 
ization whereby  the  product  could  be  better  graded,  making  it  "possi- 
ble for  the  consumer  to  buy  good  pears  even  though  at  a  much  higher 
price,  instead  of  the  exceedingly  poor  trash  that  we  are  in  the  habit 
of  seeing  in  our  grocery  stores,  and  which  is  anything  but  conducive 
to  the  sale  of  the  product.  Europe  has  given  us  our  market  in  the 
past  and  Europeans  in  America  have  consumed  most  of  our  dried 
pears.  In  order  to  educate  the  American  people  to  eat  this  delicious 
fruit,  it  will  be  necessary  to  supply  them  with  an  article  that  is 
attractive  and  that  they  may  know  has  been  handled  in  a  careful, 
sanitary  manner. 


12—37406 


177 


396  PEAR   GROWING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 

PICKING. 

Pears  for  drying  purposes  are  picked  before  ripe,  and  stored  in  bins 
or  boxes  for  a  week  or  ten  days  before  cutting.  They  are  picked  by 
hand,  although  windfalls  are  utilized  except  portions  that  are  too  badly 
bruised.  To  prevent  bruising  straw  is  sometimes  spread  under  the 
trees,  and  the  windfalls,  as  well  as  pears  knocked  off  in  picking  are 
not  liable  to  be  injured.  The  fruit  when  picked  is  placed  in  the 
ordinary  picking  boxes,  and  hauled  to  the  drying  yards,  where  it  is 
culled  and  graded  for  size  in  some  cases  and  in  others  is  left  until  cut 
and  drying  upon  the  trays  before  culling  is  done.  See  Fig.  181. 

The  following  facts  regarding  the  details  of  the  drying  process  in 
Lake  County  are  gleaned  mostly  from  an  article*  by  Fred  G.  Stokes, 


FIG.  182.    Close  view  of  stacked  trays  containing  pears  in  the  process  of  drying. 

County  Horticultural  Commissioner  of  Lake  County,  who  is  a  pear 
grower  and  who  possesses  a  minute  knowledge  of  the  business  gained 
throughout  years  of  "investigation  and  practical  experience. 

CUTTING. 

For  convenience  the  larger  drying  yards  are  equipped  with  small 
cars  run  on  tracks  located  conveniently  for  handling  the  fruit.  The 
pears  are  carried  in  lug  boxes  by  these  cars  to  the  cutting  shed  where 
the  cutters,  usually  women  of  the  neighborhood,  are  employed,  and 
paid  at  the  rate  of  ten  cents  for  a  50  pound  box.  The  wages  paid  at 
this  rate  range  from  $2  to  $3.50  per  day. 

The  pear  should  be  cut  over-ripe  in  order  that  it  may  dry  with  the 
least  possible  shrinkage.  The  operation  consists  of  cutting  the  fruit 
in  half  with  a  knife  and  removing  the  stem  and  calyx  with  a  corer. 

*  "The  Dried  Pear  Industry,"  by  Fred  G.  Stokes,  County  Horticultural  Commis- 
sioner, Kelseyville,  California  Monthly  Bulletin,  Vol.  VI.  No.  5,  Proceedings  Forty- 
ninth  State  Fruit  Growers'  Convention,  Napa,  California,  Nov.  15,  16,  17,  1916. 

178 


PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 


397 


If  fruit  is  wormy  or  otherwise  injured  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove 
the  core,  otherwise  it  is  left.  Milk  pans  are  used  as  receptacles  to 
hold  the  cut  fruit.  From  these  the  halves  are  placed  cut  side  up 
on  the  drying  trays.  These  are  purchased  for  about  50  cents  each, 
are  made  preferably  of  pine,  and  the  dimensions  are  as  follows:  8 
feet  by  3  feet,  or  8  feet  by  30  inches. 


FIG.   183.     Large  pear-drying  yard  with  trays  containing  cut  pears   inclined 
toward  the  sun  to  facilitate  drying. 

SULPHURING. 

Pears,  like  all  others  of  our  dried  fruits,  are  bleached  by  means 
of  sulphur  fumes.  This  gives  them  a  clear,  more  or  less  transparent 
appearance,  greatly  adding  to  their  attractiveness  and  sale.  In  addi- 
tion the  sulphur  gas  acts  as  a  sterilizing  agent  to  prevent  decay 
and  as  an  insecticide  or  repellant  to  kill  or  drive  away  any  insect 
life  which  might  be  present. 

SULPHUR  HOUSES  AND  BALLOONS. 

A  type  of  concrete  sulphur  house  used  in  Lake  County  is  shown 
in  Fig.  184.  This  house  is  roomy  and  suitable  for  work  on  a  large 
scale.  The  tracks  referred  to  previously  may  be  seen  running  into 
this  house,  and  a  car  upon  which  are  trays  of  fruit  ready  to  be  un- 
loaded and  sulphured  may  be  seen  also.  Fig.  185  shows  the  ordinary 
type  of  balloon  hood  that  is  effectively  used  by  many  of  the  pear 
dryers.  They  have  the  advantage  of  being  cheaper  than  the  concrete 
houses.  These  hoods  consist  of  a  light  wooden  framework,  covered 
with  ^  two  or  three-ply  roofing  paper.  The  long  row  of  hoods  shown 
in  Fig.  185  are  raised  from  and  placed  over  the  trays  by  means  of  a 
block  and  tackle  on  a  suitable  running  gear  above.  Thus  one  tackle 
may  perform  the  work  of  many  hoods. 


179 


398 


PEAR   GROWING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


F'iG.  184.     Concrete  houses  for  sulphuring  dried  pears. 


FIG.  185.     Balloon  hoods  used  for  sulphuring  dried  pears. 


180 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA.  399 

COOKING   DRIED   PEARS. 

Dried  pears  have  not  yet  become  popular  in  this  country  and  it 
has  been  necessary  to  depend  on  a  European  market.  Like  other  dried 
fruits  they  must  be  cooked  properly  to  bring  out  the  flavor.  With 
proper  cooking  there  is  no  more  delicious  dried  fruit  than  pears.  The 
following  recipe*  is  worthy  of  trial  by  every  housewife  who  discounts 
the  value  of  this  delicious  fruit. 

"Wash  the  fruit  clean  and  simmer  for  half  an  hour.  By  that  time 
the  pears  will  have  swollen  to  almost  original  size,  but  will  not 
have  softened  so  as  to  fall  to  pieces.  If  you  keep  them  stewing  they 
will  become  too  soft.  Take  the  pears  out;  lay  them  in  a  shallow  dish 
or  pan,  strain  the  water  back  over  them,  sprinkle  them  with  sugar, 
flavor  if  you  wish  with  spice  to  taste,  and  bake  fifteen  minutes.  They 
will  come  out  of  the  oven  nicely  baked,  with  the  sugar  crystallized 
on  the  surface.  Serve  with  cream  and  you  have  a  dish  that  everybody 
enjoys.  Dried  pears,  according  to  analysis,  are  one  of  the  most  nutri- 
tious of  fruits,  and  at  the  same  price  per  pound  have  a  greater  food 
value  than  dried  apples." 


*Article  by  Frank  T.   Swott  on  "Dried  Pears  and  Other  Things,"  Monthly  Bulletin, 
Vol.  VI,  No.  5,  page  127. 


181 


400  PEAR   GROWING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES. 

The  treatment  of  pear  trees  for  the  various  insect  pests  and  diseases 
that  affect  them  at  certain  times  requires  the  use  of  a  number  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  insecticides  and  fungicides.  These,  with  formulas,  methods 
of  preparation  and  general  directions  for  use,  are  discussed. 

CONTACT   INSECTICIDES. 

Lime-sulphur  (commercial). 

Lime-sulphur  (homemade). 

Nicotine  (tobacco  decoction,  sulphate  of  nicotine,  tobacco  dust,  etc). 

Kerosene  emulsion. 

Distillate  emulsion. 

Crude  oil  emulsion. 

Miscible  oil. 

Sulphur  (sublimed,  atomic,  milled,  soluble,  etc). 

Whale-oil' soap  (fish  oils). 

Caustic  soda. 

Distillate  emulsion  and  tobacco   (Government  pear  thrips  formula). 

POISONOUS  INSECTICIDES. 
Arsenate  of  lead. 
Paris  green. 
Arsenite  of  zinc. 

FUNGICIDES  AND  GERMICIDES. 

Bordeaux  mixture. 

Lime-sulphur  (commercial). 

Lime-sulphur  (homemade). 

Lime-sulphur  ( self -boiled ) . 

Sulphur  (sublimed,  atomic,  milled,  soluble,  etc.). 

Bichloride  of  mercury. 

Formalin. 

FUMIGANTS. 
Hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 
Carbon  bisulphide  gas. 

REPELLANTS. 

Bordeaux  mixture. 

Whitewash. 

Lime-sulphur. 


182 


PEAR   GROWING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


401 


FIG.  186.     The  pears  and  leaves  in  this  picture  show  the  very  even  distribution 
of  arsenate  of  lead,  indicating  a  thorough  job  of  spraying. 


SPRAY  FORMULAE. 
No.  1.     Lime-Sulphur — Commercial. 

Practically  every  insecticide  company  manufactures  lime-sulphur, 
consequently  there  are  a  great  many  different  brands  of  this  material 
on  the  market,  most  of  which  are  good.  It  is  prepared,  as  a  rule,  in  the 
form  of  a  liquid,  although  recently  a  powdered  lime-sulphur  has  been 
put  on  the  market.  This  form  has  not  yet  been  used  extensively  enough 
so  that  it  can  be  recommended.  The  liquid  lime-sulphur  is  diluted  for 
use  on  pear  trees  while  they  are  dormant  by  adding  to  1  gallon  of  the 


402  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

liquid  10  gallons  of  water.    For  summer  use  on  pear  trees  it  should  not 
be  used  stronger  than  1  gallon  of  lime-sulphur  to  35  gallons  of  water. 

No.  2.     Lime-Sulphur — Homemade. 

Stone  lime 80  pounds 

Sulphur   60  pounds 

Water  __.  ___  200  gallons 

Preparation. 

Bring  about  50  gallons  of  water  to  a  boil  in  some  suitable  vessel, 
or  a  sufficient  amount  for  slaking  the  80  pounds  of  lime.  Add  the 
sulphur  and  mix  as  well  as  possible  with  the  water.  When  the  water 
is  hot,  carefully  put  in  the  lime,  which  will  slack  almost  instantly 
with  the  generation  of  a  great  amount  of  heat.  This  is  desirable,  as  it 
helps  effect  a  combination  of  the  lime  and  sulphur  immediately.  The 
mixture  must  be  boiled  for  at  least  45  minutes.  When  finished, 
the  liquid  is  a  bright  red  color,  often  turning  olive  green  upon  further 
boiling.  There  is  no  danger  of  boiling  too  long,  but  on  the  other  hand 
too  little  boiling  may  be  responsible  for  a  poor  product.  Dilute  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  cold  water  to  make  200  gallons  of  the  spray. 
Lime  sulphur  is  one  of  our  best  insecticides  as  well  as  fungicides. 

No.  3.     Nicotine  (Tobacco  Decoction,  Sulphate  of  Nicotine,  Tobacco  Dust,  etc.). 

For  the  various  plant  lice  which  affect  pears  there  is  nothing  better 
to  apply  during  the  summer  season  than  nicotine,  commonly  used  in 
the  form  of  a  sulphate.  It  is  sold  under  the  names  of  nicotine  sulphate 
and  Black  Leaf  "  40. "  It  is  generally  applied  at  the  strength  of  1  part 
of  water  to  1,000  parts  of  nicotine  sulphate.  The  addition  of  3  pounds 
or  more  of  soap  (whale  oil  or  other  good  liquid  fish  oil  soap  is  desirable) 
to  100  gallons  of  the  diluted  spray  adds  to  its  efficiency.  In  combination 
with  distillate  emulsion,  3  per  cent  strength,  it  is  used  for  the  control 
of  pear  thrips.  A  decoction  of  tobacco  is  made  by  steeping  stems  and 
leaves  in  water  about  the  boiling  point;  it  must  not  boil  as  nicotine 
volatilizes  readily.  Tobacco  dust  very  finely  ground  is  used  for  root 
forms  of  aphids  and  is  sometimes  dusted  on  trees  infested  with  plant 
lice. 

No.  4.     Kerosene  Emulsion. 

Water    1  gallon 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

Hard  soap 1  pound 

Preparation. 

Bring  the  gallon  of  water  to  a  boil  and  dissolve  the  soap  in  it.  While 
hot  add  the  kerosene,  agitating  the  mixture  violently  for  fifteen  min- 
utes or  more.  A  cream-like  emulsion  should  be  formed,  which  will  mix 
readily  with  cold  water.  A  stock  solution,  containing  66|  per  cent  oil, 
is  obtained  by  this  process  and  may  be  diluted  to  any  desired  strength. 
Larger  quantities  are  prepared  by  using  the  same  materials  in  a  like 
proportion.  A  simple  method  for  diluting  to  any  desired  strength  is  as 
follows :  Divide  200  by  the  per  cent  desired  and  subtract  3.  This  will 
give  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  add  to  each  3  gallons  of  stock 
solution  for  the  desired  per  cent.  For  example,  a  15  per  cent  solution 

'  i :  184 


PEAR   GROWING  IN    CALIFORNIA.  403 

is  desired;  200  divided  by  15  equals  13J,  minus  3  equals  10  J;  this 
amount  of  water  added  to  3  gallons  of  stock  solution  will  give  the 
15  per  cent  emulsion. 

No.  5.     Distillate   Emulsion.* 

Distillate    (28°  Baume)  —  .—  20  gallons 

Whale  oil  soap 30  pounds 

Water  to  mix 12  gallons 

Preparation. 

Dissolve  the  whale-oil  soap  in  the  water,  heating  it  to  the  boiling 
point;  add  the  distillate  and  agitate  thoroughly  while  the  solution  is 
hot.  For  use  add  from  10  to  20  gallons  of  water  to  each  gallon  of  the 
above  mixture. 

No.  6.     Crude  Oil   Emulsion.* 

Water 175  gallons 

Liquid  soap ^ 3  gallons 

Crude  oil , 25  gallons 

Preparation. 

Pill  the  spray  tank  with  the  175  gallons  of  water ;  add  the  liquid 
soap ;  agitate  thoroughly  for  one  minute,  after  which  add  the  crude  oil, 
continuing  the  agitation. 

If  the  liquid  soap  can  not  be  had,  use  20  pounds  whale-oil  soap,  dis- 
solved in  10  gallons  of  boiling  water,  to  which  3  pounds  of  lye  have 
been  added. 

No.  7.     Miscible  Oil. 

The  so-called  miscible  oil  sprays  are  becoming  very  popular  for  use 
in  deciduous  orchards  that  are  infested  with  scale  insects,  leaf  roller, 
etc.  Practically  all  insecticide  companies  handle  miscible  oils,  which 
are  generally  diluted  with  10  parts  of  water  for  dormant  use.  When 
properly  made  the  emulsion  which  results  after  mixing  with  water  is 
milk-like,  there  being  practically  no  separation  of  the  oil  from  the 
ingredients  of  the  emulsion.  If  the  milk-like  consistency  is  not  present 
after  mixing,  it  is  usually  because  of  hard  water,  in  which  case  it  is 
necessary  to  use  lye  (caustic  soda)  in  order  to  soften  the  water. 

No.  8.     Sulphur  (Sublimed,  Atomic,  Milled,  Soluble,  etc.). 

As  an  insecticide  and  fungicide  sulphur  is  quite  generally  used  in 
one  form  or  another.  In  the  case  of  pear  trees  it  may  be  used  for  mites 
as  it  is  the  standard  remedy  for  these  pests.  Frequently  the  sublimed 
sulphur  is  dusted  upon  infested  trees  and,  when  weather  conditions  are 
right,  with  good  results.  Any  of  the  forms  known  as  atomic,  milled, 
or  soluble  suphur  can  be  used  with  splendid  results.  These  are  con- 
veniently mixed  with  water  and,  generally  speaking,  are  preferable  to 
sublimed  sulphur. 

No.  9.     Whale-Oil   Soap    (Fish   Oils). 

This  soap  is  often  used  in  combination  with  nicotine  sprays,  to 
increase  their  penetration  and  spreading  qualities.  Alone  as  a  spray 

*Copied  from  "Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects  of  California,"  by  E.  O    Essigr. 

185 


404  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

for  aphids  it  is  very  valuable,  when  used  at  the  strength  of  1  pound  of 
soap  to  5  gallons  of  water. 

The  ordinary  form  of  this  soap  has  to  be  melted  before  being  used. 
There  is,  however,  a  liquid  form  on  the  market  which  is  much  more 
conveniently  handled.  Fish  oils  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps 
for  spraying  purposes  and  may  be  substituted  for  whale-oil  soap. 

No.  10.     Caustic  Soda. 

This  material  can  not  be  considered  as  an  insecticide ;  however,  it  is 
used  frequently  in  breaking  hard  water  in  order  that  oil  emulsion 
sprays  may  make  perfect  emulsions  when  mixed  with  water.  It  also 
has  considerable  value  in  killing  moss  or  lichens  on  fruit  trees.  Three 
pounds  of  caustic  soda  to  100  gallons  of  oil  spray  will  remove  moss 
from  pear  trees  that  have  been  neglected  and  where  it  has  consequently 
become  abundant. 

No.  11.     Distillate   Emulsion  and  Tobacco.* 
(Government  Formula  for  Pear  Thrips.) 

Water 12  gallons 

Whale  oil  soap » 30  pounds 

Distillate   (32°  to  34°  Baume) —  _  20  gallons 

The  above  emulsion  is  prepared  in  the  ordinary  way  as  a  stock  solu- 
tion. For  use  in  the  orchard  dilute  one  to  twenty  parts  of  water.  To 
every  two  hundred  gallons  of  this  diluted  spray  add  one  pint  of  tobacco 
extract  containing  forty  per  cent  nicotine  or  about  three  and  one  half 
gallons  of  tobacco  extract  containing  2f  per  cent  nicotine. 

This  spray  is  especially  recommended  for  pear  thrips. 

No.  12.     Arsenate  of  Lead. 

This  is  the  most  commonly  used  arsenical  spray  in  the  pear  orchard 
and  the  commonly  used  strength  is  3  pounds  of  paste  to  50  gallons 
of  water,  or  1J  pounds  of  the  powdered  form  of  arsenate  of  lead  to 
50  gallons  of  water.  This  amount  is  sufficient  for  the  control  of  codling 
moth,  canker  worm,  tent  caterpillar,  pear  slugs  and  other  larvae  which 
feed  upon  foliage  and  fruit.  Half  of  this  amount  will  suffice  for  the 
calyx  application  in  spraying  for  the  control  of  codling  moth. 

No.  13.     Paris  Green. 

In  the  past  this  arsenical  poison  has  been  very  extensively  used 
in  spraying  for  the  control  of  chewing  insects,  but  its  use  has  been 
superseded  by  the  safer  and  generally  better  arsenate  of  lead.  For 
codling  moth  and  other  chewing  insects  it  should  be  applied  at  the 
strength  of  f  pound  to  100  gallons  of  water.  On  account  of  the  like- 
lihood of  there  being  more  or  less  soluble  arsenic  in  the  Paris  green, 
which  may  blight  the  foliage,  lime  in  small  quantities  should  always 
be  added  to  the  spray.  Five  pounds  of  stone  lime,  slaked,  to  every 
100  gallons  of  liquid  is  sufficient. 

No.  14.     Arsenite  of  Zinc. 

The  above  is  one  of  the  newer  arsenical  insecticides  manufactured 
by  the  California  Spray  Chemical  Company  of  Watsonville.  It  gives 

"Copied  from  "Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects  of  California,"  by  E.  O.  Esste. 

186 


PEAR   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA.  405 

splendid  results  in  killing  certain  insects  which  are  more  or  less  re- 
sistant to  arsenate  of  lead  poisoning,  as  well  as  all  those  for  which 
the  arsenate  of  lead  is  used.  This  is  a  less  stable  compound  than 
arsenate  of  lead  and  for  that  reason  considerable  damage  has  been 
done  to  the  foliage  and  fruit  of  trees  to  which  it  has  been  applied.  It 
is  recommended  only  for  the  calyx  application  for  codling  moth  on 
apple  trees  and  no  doubt  would  also  be  effective  in  the  case  of  pears. 

No.  15.     Bordeaux   Mixture. 

Capper  sulphate 20  pounds 

Stone  lime   (unslaked) 20  pounds 

Water 200  gallons 

Preparation. 

The  copper  sulphate  is  first  dissolved  by  suspending  the  weighed 
amount  in  a  sack  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  The  lime  is  slaked 
in  an  equal  amount  of  water  and  the  two  liquids  containing  the  dis- 
solved materials  poured  together  into  the  spray  tank,  where  the  agitator 
will  keep  the  liquid  properly  mixed.  Bordeaux  may  now  be  purchased 
in  the  form  of  a  paste  ready  for  dilution  with  water.  The  convenience 
of  this  form,  though  it  is  more  expensive  than  the  home-made  product, 
is  fast  making  it  popular.  Bordeaux  is  one  of  the  older  fungicides 
and  is  by  many  rated  as  the  best  that  has  ever  been  discovered  for 
general  fungicidal  purposes. 

No.  16.     Lime-Sulphur — Self-Boiled. 

Stone  lime 8  pounds 

Sulphur    8  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

Preparation. 

The  preparation  differs  from  that  of  the  home-made,  boiled  lime- 
sulphur  in  that  only  the  heat  of  the  lime,  which  is  generated  during 
the  slaking  process,  is  utilized.  It  is  made  in  a  barrel  or  tank,  which 
may  be  covered  tightly  to  retain  the  heat  for  about  15  or  20  minutes, 
when  a  slight  amount  of  sulphur  and  lime  will  have  combined.  It 
is  diluted  with  cold  water,  after  being  strained. 

In  some  of  the  states  to  the  east  the  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  alone 
or  in  combination  with  arsenate  of  lead  has  been  used  very  successfully 
in  the  control  of  scab  but  has  not  been  generally  recommended  under 
California  conditions. 

No.  17.     Bichloride  of  Mercury. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  (bichloride  of  mercury),  is  used  extensively 
in  pear  blight  work  for  disinfecting  tools  and  wounds  made  in  the 
removal  of  blight  from  affected  trees.  It  may  be  purchased  from 
druggists  in  the  form  of  tablets,  one  tablet  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water 
making  a  1  to  1000  solution. 

No.  18.     Formalin. 

Formalin  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  bichloride  of  mercury  as 
a  disinfectant,  but  is  not  recommended  for  disinfection  work  in  con- 
nection with  pear  blight  control. 

187 


406  PEAR    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

No.  19.     Hydrocyanic  Acid   Gas. 

This  gas  is  generated  by  the  treatment  of  either  potassium  or  sodium 
cyanide  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  in  the  proportions  of  1  ounce  of 
potassium  cyanide,  1  fluid  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid  and  3  fluid  ounces  of 
water  or  |  ounce  sodium  cyanide  with  H  fluid  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  2  fluid  ounces  of  water.  It  is  necessary  to  confine  this  gas  in  a 
tight  box  or  house  in  order  to  get  results.  It  is  very  light  and  rapidly 
dissipates  in  the  air  unless  confined.  It  is  very  valuable  in  the  fumi- 
gation of  pear  trees  that  are  affected  with  root  aphids  or  scale  insects. 
Being  extremely  poisonous,  the  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  in  its 
use.  It  is  generated  usually  in  an  earthenware  jar,  the  water  being 
first  put  in  the  jar  and  the  sulphuric  acid  then  poured  into  the  water, 
after  which  the  weighed  amount  of  cyanide  necessary  for  the  particular 
building  is  dropped  into  the  solution,  with  the  resultant  formation  of 
the  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

No.  20.     Carbon   Bisulphide  Gas. 

This  gas  is  sometimes  used  with  nursery  stock  instead  of  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas.  Being  much  more  expensive  and  in  most  cases  less  effective 
than  the  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  it  is  not  generally  recommended  for  use 
in. the  fumigation  of  nursery  stock.  The  gas  is  very  heavy,  flowing  like 
water,  and  if  used  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  so  heavy  that  it  will 
settle  to  the  bottom  of  any  box  or  house  in  which  it  is  used.  Thus  it 
becomes  necessary  to  use  a  sufficient  amount  to  practically  fill  the  box 
or  house,  providing  that  same  is  filled  with  trees. 

No.  21.     Whitewash. 
Wickson*  recommends  the  following  formula  for  whitewash : 

Lime 30  pounds 

Tallow   . 4  pounds 

Salt 5  pounds 

Water  sufficient  to  make  it  flow  well. 

In  cases  where  rabbits  are  troublesome  to  trees  the  salt  should  be 
eliminated,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  attract  the  rabbits,  which  frequently 
injure  the  trees  by  eating  the  bark  from  the  trunks.  In  place  of  salt  it 
would  be  well  to  use  a  small  amount  of  commercial  aloes  dissolved  in 
the  whitewash,  as  this  material  is  exceedingly  distasteful  to  rabbits. 
One  pound  of  aloes  to  5  gallons  of  whitewash  would  be  sufficient  to  give 
good  results. 

MIXING   INSECTICIDES  AND   FUNGICIDES. 

The  pear  tree  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  so  many  different  kinds  of 
insect  pests  and  diseases  that  at  times  it  is  practical  and  economical  to 
mix  certain  insecticides  in  order  that  more  than  one  pest  may  be  con- 
trolled, or  to  mix  an  insecticide  and  a  fungicide  in  order  that  certain 
insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases  may  be  controlled.  For  example,  it  is 
always  customary  in  sections  where  pear  scab  and  codling  moth  are 
troublesome  on  pears  to  mix  arsenate  of  lead  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 

*  "California  Fruits,"  seventh  edition,  page  85. 


188 


STOMACH  POISONS 
Acid  Lead  Arsenate 


Basic  Lead  Arsenate,, 
(Neutral) 


Paris  Green 


Zinc  Arsenite 


Tobacco  Infusions 


Concentrated 

Tobacco  Preparations 


FUNGICIDES 
Bordeaux  Mixture 

Lime  Sulfur 

Solution 

Sulfur 


Alkali  Sulfides 


Soaps 


Soap-Oil  Emulsions 


Cyanide  Fumigation 
TRACHEAL  POISONS 


KEY  TO  CHART: 

Data  lacking: 

Dangerous  combinations  _    _    —    —Probably   dangerous 

Jleeommended  combinations         _    _    _    _  Probably    safe 

_    _    _    _  Doubtful 


Doubtful   combinations, 
useful   under   some   conditions 


PEAR   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA.  407 

atomic  sulphur  or  some  other  good  fungicide  in  the  early  spring  when 
the  first  application  is  made  for  codling  moth  just  as  the  blossoms  have 
dropped.  By  going  over  the  orchard  once  at  this  time  with  this  com- 
bined spray  both  scab  and  codling  moth  are  controlled. 

Professor  George  P.  Gray,  Chemist,  Insecticide  and  Fungicide  Labor- 
atory of  the  University  of  California,  has  prepared  a  compatibility 
chart  of  insecticides  and  fungicides  which  shows  at  a  glance  which  may 
be  mixed  with  safety,  which  are  dangerous  combinations,  which  are 
doubtful,  etc.  It  is  believed  that  this  chart  will  be  exceedingly  valuable 
to  the  pear  growers  of  California  and  it  is  therefore  being  used  in 
connection  with  this  article.  Professor  Gray  printed  this  chart  origin- 
ally in  Circular  No.  195,  March,  1918. 


189 


INDEX. 


NOTE. — Figures  indicating  page  numbers  refer  to  folios  at  foot  of  pages. 


Acreage  of  bearing  pear  trees  in  New 
York,  Ohio,  Michigan  and  California, 
8. 

of  pears  in  California,  1916  and  1917,  6. 

table — Pears  in   California  by   counties, 

1917,  9. 

Adaptability   of   varieties   to   different   re- 
gions of  state,  table  showing,  65. 
Alfalfa  as  cover  crop,  106. 
Angouleme,  description  of,  20. 
Anjou,   description  of,   20. 

leaf  characteristics,  18. 

prices  for,  12. 
Ants  as  blight  carriers,   144. 

control  of,   168. 
Aphis,  blight  spread  by,   126. 

bur  clover  or  cow  pea,  control,  156. 
Arsenate  of  lead  spray  formula,  186. 
Arsenite  of  zinc  spray  formula,  186. 
Asphaltum,  use  of  in  treating  wounds,  97. 
Bacterial    and    Fungous    Diseases    of    the 

Pear,  Chap.  XIII,  125. 
Bardhall,  O.  A.,   136. 
Bartlett,  6. 

as   stock,   111. 

blight  resistance,  compared  with 
Kieffer,   9; 

blight  susceptibility,  135. 

compared  with  A.  J.  Cook  variety,  30. 

description  of,  21. 

effect  of  cross  pollination  on  production, 
15. 

effect  of  pollinizers  in  production,  16. 

Enoch,  22. 

in  California,  14. 

leaf  characteristics,  18. 

popularity  in   California,    74. 

prices   for,   12. 

Winter,   leaf   characteristics,    19. 
Bean  thrips,  control,   155. 
Bees  as  blight  carriers,  142. 
Beurre  Hardy  as  stock,   111. 
Bichloride  of  mercury  as  disinfectant,  134. 

of  mercury,  disinfectant  formula,  187. 
Black  scale,  control,  155. 
Blight,  control,  129. 

control,   new   method,    146. 

cutting  method  of  control,   130. 

described,    125. 

destructiveness  of,  128. 

effect  on  planting,   9. 

holdover,   128. 

preventive  measures,  142. 

resistant  roots,  134. 
Bloodgood,  description  of,  24. 
Blooming  dates,  table  of,   17. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  formula  for,  187. 

paste,  in  blight  control,  146. 

variety,   described,   24. 
Bosc,  description  of,   24. 

leaf  characteristics,   18. 

prices   for,    12. 
Boussock,  description  of,  25. 


Branch  and  twig  borer  control,  155. 
Bretonneau,    description   of,    25. 
Bridge  grafting,   142. 
Brosius,  Fred  C.,   91. 

Art.  on  Cultural  Costs  quoted,  11. 
Budding,   69. 
Burrill,  T.  J.,   125. 
California  Nursery  Company,  variety  test 

block,  16. 
Canning    and    Drying    Pears,    Chap.    XVI, 

176. 
Carbon   bisulphide   gas,   method   of   using, 

188. 

Cardinal,  description  of,  26. 
Care  of  nursery  trees,  78. 

of    Trees    for    Planting,    Selection    and, 

Chap.   IV,    74. 
Caustic  soda  spray,  186. 
Central  California  Coast  Region,  pears  in, 

12. 

Cherry  or  Calico  Scale,  control,  156. 
Clairgeau,   description    of,    26. 
Clapp  Favorite,   description  of,   28. 
Clover  as  cover  crop,  105. 
Codling  moth,  description  and  control,  153. 
Cornice,  description  of,  28. 

prices  for,   12. 
Commercial  Fertilizers,  107. 
Compatibility  chart,  insecticides  and  fungi- 
cides, 189. 

Contact  insecticides,   182. 
Cook   (A.  J.)   variety,  description  of,  29. 
Cooking  dried  pears,  181. 
Corrosive  sublimate  as  disinfectant,  134. 
Cost  of  bringing  an  orchard  into  bearing, 

9. 

of  culture,  pear  orchard,  11. 
of  production  of  full  bearing  trees,  11. 
Cottony  cushion  scale,   control,   157. 
Cover  crops,  104. 

Crandall,  C.  S. — Pears  in  Illinois,  8. 
Cross  pollination,  effect  on  production,  14, 

15,  16. 

Crown  gall,  147. 

Crude  oil  emulsion,  formula,   185. 
Culls,  drying,  177. 
Cultivation,  104. 
Cutting  pears,    178. 
Dana's  Hovey,   description   of,    32. 
Dearborn's  Seedling,  description  of,  34. 
Diel,  description  of,  34. 
Digging  and  care  of  nursery  trees,  75. 
Disinfection  of  tools  and  cuts,  132. 
Distance    and    Systems    for    Planting   and 

Number  of  Trees  per  Acre,  Chap.  V, 

79. 
Distillate     emulsion     and     tobacco     spray 

formula,   186. 

Distillate  emulsion,  formula,   185. 
Dix,  description  of,  34. 

Downing — scheme  of  fruit  description,  19. 
Drying  pears,  176. 
Dwarf  trees,  68. 


INDEX. 


409 


Dynamiting  holes,   85. 
Easter  Beurre  as  stock,  111. 

description  of,    36. 
Eelworm  control,   170. 
European    or    Italian    pear    scale,    control, 

158. 

Fawcett,  H.  S.,  146. 
Fertilization,  effect  of,  83. 
Fertilizers,  106. 

Flat-headed  apple-tree  borer,  control,  158. 
Formalin,  disinfectant  formula,   187. 
Flemish    Beauty,    blight    susceptibility    of, 

135. 

description   of,    36. 
Forelle,  blight  susceptibility  of,   134. 

description  of,  37. 
Franciscan  Fathers,  5. 
Fresh  fruit  standardization  law,  174. 
Frosted   scale,   control,    159. 
Frost  Injury  and  Frost  Protection,   Chap. 

XI,   114. 

Fruit-tree  leaf  roller,  control,  159. 
Fumigants,  182. 
Fumigation  of  nursery  trees,  75. 

process,  77. 

Fungicides  and  germicides,  182. 
Gaillard,  description  of,  38. 
Gammon,   E.   A.,   103,   120. 

piping  system,   121. 
Giffard,   description  of,   38. 
Glout  Morceau,  description  of,  40. 
Gophers,   control  of,   171. 
Grading,   173. 
Grafting  Methods,  112. 

preparation  of  trees  for,  112. 
the  Pear,  Chap.  X,  111. 
Wax,  formula,  113. 
Gray,  George  P.,  189. 
Green  apple  aphis,  control,  159. 
Hardy  (Beurre  Hardy),  description  of,  40. 

as  stock,   68. 
Hassler,  description  of,  42. 

J.  E.,  29. 

Heyst,  description  of,  43. 
Home,  W.  T.,   148. 
Howell,  description  of,  43. 
Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  method  of  genera- 
tion,   188. 

Idaho,  description  of,   45. 
Imperial  Valley  Region,  13. 
Insecticides   and   Fungicides,   Chap.    XVII, 

182. 

mixing  of,    188. 
Insect,    Mite    and    Animal    Pests    of    the 

Pear,  Chap.  XIV,  153. 
Insects,  as  blight  carriers,  142.' 
Intercrops,   107. 
Interplanting  varieties,   15. 
Irrigation,   Cultivation,   Cover  Crops,   Fer- 
tilizers, Intercrops,   Chap.  IX,  103. 
Joan  of  Arc,  description  of,  45. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  formula,   184. 
Kieffer,   139. 

blight  resistance,   8,   9. 
description  of,   46. 
leaf  characteristics,  19. 


Lawrence,   description  of,   47. 
Lawson   (Comet),  description  of,  48. 
Leaf  characteristics  of  varieties,   18. 
Lecanium,   European  fruit,   control,   157. 
Le  Conte,  description  of,  48. 

leaf  characteristics,  19. 
Legumes,  as  cover  crops,  105. 
Le  Lectier,  description  of,  50. 
Lesser  shot  hole  borer,  control,  159. 
Lime  sulphur,  formula,  183. 
in  blight  control,  146. 
self-boiled,  formula,  187. 
Lipman,  Chas.  B.,  84. 
Loma  Rica  Nurseries,   31. 
Louise,  description  of,  50. 
Lucrative,  description   of,   51. 
Madeleine  Early,  description  of,   51. 
Marguerite  Marillat,   description  of,   51. 
Marking  and  digging  holes,  85. 
Manure,  barnyard,  106. 
McCormick,  A.  C.,  135. 
Mealybug,  control,   155. 
Melilotus  indicctj  105. 
Melon  aphis,  control,  160. 
Meriam,  E. — Cost  of  bringing  orchard  into 

bearing,  9. 
Meyer,  F.  N.,   136. 
Michigan,  bearing  trees  in,   8. 
Miscible  oil  spray,  formula,   185. 
Modoc-Inyo  Region,  13. 
Mount  Vernon,  description  of,   52. 
New  York,  bearing  trees  in,  8. 
Nicotine  spray,  formula,   184. 
Northern   and   Central   California  Interior 

Valley  Region,  13. 
Northern    California   Coast    Region,   pears 

•in,   12. 

Number  of  trees  per  acre,  81. 
Nursery  trees,  digging  and  care  of,   75. 

freedom  from  insect  pests,  74. 
Oak  root  fungus,  147. 
Ohio,   bearing  trees  in,   8. 
Onondaga,  description  of,  52. 
Orchard  heating,   115. 
Oyster  shell  scale,  control,   160. 
Packing,   174. 

cost  of,  11. 

Paddock,  Wendell — Pears  in  Ohio,  8. 
Paris  green,  spray  formula,  186. 
Patten,   Charles  G.,    136. 
P.   Barry,  description  of,  52. 
Pear,  canker,  146. 

leaf  blister  mite,  control,  160. 

leaf  rust  mite,  control,  162. 

regions  of  the  state,  12. 

root  aphis,   control,   165. 

scab,  149. 

slug  control,  166. 

thrips,  control,   162. 

Penalty  for  misrepresenting  varieties,   71. 
Philopena,  description  of,   54. 
Picking,   172,   178. 

cost  of,   11. 

Piping  system  for  spraying,  119. 
Planting  suggestions  to  orchardists,  87. 
Poisoned  barley,  formula,  171. 


410 


INDEX. 


Poisonous  insecticides,  182. 
Pound,  description  of,  54. 
Preparation  for  planting,   84. 
Prices  received  for  pears,  12. 
Production,  of  pear  orchard,  12. 

of  pears  in  California,   1917,   6. 
Pruning,  Chap.  VIII,  90. 

fourth  and  fifth  seasons,  94. 

mature  trees,  95. 

second  season,   92. 

third   season,    93. 

tools,   100. 
Pyrus  calleryana,  137. 

communis  as  a  stock,  136. 

communis,      infection      of      pear      blight 
through  water  sprouts,  132. 

communis,  leaf  characteristics,   19. 

communis,  root  resistance  to  blight,  134. 

communis,   seedling,    69. 

heterophylla,  leaf,  18. 

ovoidea,  138,  139. 

pashia,  139. 

serotina,  136,   137. 

serotina  as  a  stock,    66. 

serotina,  blight  resistant  root,  134. 

serotina,   leaf    characteristics,    19. 

serotina,  seedling,   69. 

simonii,  139. 

sinensis,  136. 

ussuriensis,  339. 

ussuriensis,  description  of,   136. 

ussuriensis,  immune  t'-  ^1?ght,  135. 

variolosa,  138,   139. 

Quality  of  Varieties,  table  showing,  64. 
Quince  root,  68. 
Rabbits,   88. 

control  of,   170. 

Red-humped   caterpillar,    control,   164. 
Red  spiders,  control,   169. 
Reed,  Hay  ward,  146. 

Hay  ward,  piping  system,  120. 
Reimer,  F.  C.,  107,  129,  135,  140. 

F.  C.,  quoted,  138. 
Repellants,  182. 
Root  grafts,  72. 
Rossney,  description  of,   54. 
Russeting,  frost  injury,   115. 
San  Jose  scale,  control,   163.      ^  •' *  - 
Sawfly,   California  pear,   control,    156. 
Seckel,  description  of,  55. 
Seedlings,   69. 

Serration  of  leaves,  18.  > 

Setting     and     Caring     for     Young     Trees, 

Chap.  VII,   87. 
Sheldon,  description  of,   55. 
Shot  hole  borer,  or  fruit  tree  bark  beetl3, 

control,   165. 
Sierra     Nevada     Foothill     and     Mountain 

Region,  13. 
Smith,  H.   S.f  169. 
Soil  Analysis,   84. 
Soils  ajid  Their  Preparation  for  Planting, 

Chap.  VI,  82. 

Southern    California    Coast   Region,    pears 
in,  12. 


Southern  California  Desert  Region,   13. 

Souvenir,   description  of,   56. 

Spring  cankerworm,  control,  165. 

Sprayjng,  cost  of,  11. 

Spraying  the  Pear,  Chap.  XII,  118. 

Squirrels,  control  of,   171. 

Standard  trees,   66. 

Stokes,  Fred  G.,   178. 

Sulphur,  as  fertilizer,  107. 

house  and  balloons,   179. 

spray,   185. 

Sulphuring  pears,   179. 
Sun   scald,    88. 
Superfin,   description  of,   56. 
Surprise,  as  stock,  140. 
Swett,  Frank  T.,  68,  181. 
Systems  for  planting,   81. 
Taft,  L.   R. — Pears  in  Michigan,   S. 
Tanglefoot,   144. 
Thinning,  Picking  and  Packing,  Chap.  XV, 

172. 

Tools  for  blight  cutting,   131. 
Touraine,  description  of,  56. 
Tree  protectors,  88. 
Trees,   Stocks  and  Propagation,  Chap.   Ill, 

66. 
Tufts,  Warren  P.,  15. 

Bartlett  self -fertility  in  CalL'ornia,  14. 
Tyson,  description  of,  57. 
Urbaniste,   description  of,   57. 
Vanille,  description  of,  57. 
Varieties,   14. 

description  of,  20. 
Vetch  as  cover  crop,  106. 
Vicar,   description  of,    57. 
Vienne,  description  of,  58. 
Volck,  W.   H.,   98. 
Waite,   M.   B.,   129. 
Watering  the  young  tree,   88. 
Watson,  JT.  R.,  155. 
Wax,   asphaltum-parafflne,  preparation  of, 

99. 

Waxing  grafts,  113. 
Whale-oil  soap  spray,  185. 
White  Doyenne,  description  of,   59. 
Whitewash,  Bordeaux,  preparation  of,   99. 

formula,   188. 

Wilder  Early,  description  of,  59. 
William's  Bon  Chretien,  description  of,  22. 
W'inter  Bartlett,  description  of,  60. 
Winter  Nelis,   compared  with  A.   J.    Cook 
variety,  30. 

as  stock,   111. 

cross  pollinizing  Bartletts,  15. 

description  of,    60. 

leaf  characteristics,  18. 

pollinizer  for   Bartlett,   16. 

prices  for,   12. 
Wisker,  A.   L.,   15,   26,   29,  31,   87,   140. 

table   showing  blooming   time   of  pears, 
17. 

variety  test  block,  16. 
Worcester,  description  of,  62. 
Wounds,  treatment  of,  97. 
Zoe,  description  of,  62. 


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